Download Biosocial Theories

Criminological Theory
The Search for the Criminal Man
Revisited:
Biosocial Theories
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Introduction

By the 1960s, biology had lost much of its
influence in criminological theory

By the mid-1970s, interests emerged in newer
biological approaches to criminality

Publication of E.O. Wilson’s Sociobiology
In the late 1970s, Lee Ellis and others were placing
their hope for criminological theory in a biological or
biosocial approach
Some argued a specific genetic defect
Explosion of work on DNA

The Human Genome Project



Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Introduction

Ellis (1977) hearkened to scientific approaches that
promised greater results in the future than sociological
approaches

Calls began for a “general systems theory” approach to
social theory that would allow it to build upon biological
foundations without falling into reductionism

Call to be interdisciplinary

With the resistance of many sociological oriented
criminologists, it is clear that the current resurgence in
biological theorizing will persist and grow in the foreseeable
future

Biosocial theorists suggest that biological traits interact with
the social environment to shape human behavior
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Introduction

Biosocial criminology is a “broader and more
powerful” paradigm than sociological criminology
and is likely to be the major paradigm of the 21st
century

More major “breakthroughs” are being hailed in
biology, lending additional momentum to the few
biologically oriented criminologists

At both the beginning and the end of the 1990s
indicated that about 85% of American
criminologists remained strict environmentalists
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Introduction

Biosocial criminologists risk being charged
with racism and/or sexism in an atmosphere
of political correctness

Most biosocial criminologists reject the idea
that biology translates into a predestined fate
and instead suggests that genetic traits
interact with the environment to shape human
behavior
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Introduction

Biosocial approaches may be categorized in
terms of evolutionary psychology,
neuroscience, and genetics

Research compares biological risk factors to
biological protective factors (an eco-biological
approach)
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Evolutionary Psychology:
Darwin Revisited

Several new efforts to formulate theories
based on evolutionary dictates

Cheater theory: Some males have evolved
“alternative reproductive strategies” to
unconsciously ensure that their genes are
passed on to succeeding generations

Dads vs. cads
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Evolutionary Psychology:
Darwin Revisited

The cheater theory: Argues some males have
evolved alternative reproductive strategies that
unconsciously ensure their genes are passed to
succeeding generations


The r/K theory: Stresses that biological creatures
vary in their approach to reproduction



Cads v. Dad
R= large number of offspring with no attachments
K= slower reproduction with attachments
Conditional adaptation theory: Maintains that
antisocial behavior is part of an overall adaptive
response to an unstable or hostile environment
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Evolutionary Psychology:
Darwin Revisited

Alternative adaptation theory: Some people
inherit a greater tendency to engage in
antisocial and are driven more by mating
urges than by parenting urges

Evolutionary expropriative theory: All humans
have an equal genetic potential for antisocial
behavior; humans are genetically driven to
acquire resources to ensure reproduction
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Evolutionary Psychology:
Darwin Revisited: Assessment




Evolutionary theories are rarely as purely biological
as the media make them appear; rather they are
biosocial
Darwin’s unit of analysis is the species and
concerned with the process of natural selection
Tendency for some evolutionary psychologists to
write as if a trait that has survived must be ipso facto
a desirable one, but those traits may be detrimental
today
Many evolutionary psychologists study the
presumed evolution of “positive” traits such as
empathy and altruism
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Evolutionary Psychology:
Darwin Revisited: Assessment

Within the past several decades evolutionary
psychology has been dominated to some
extent by a notion that departed from
Darwin’s approach—that of the “selfish gene”


Has come under increasing scrutiny in the past 30
years and evidence suggests that individual
selection and group selection are operating
simultaneously
Evolutionary theories are hard to prove or
disprove
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Social Concern Theory:
Evolutionary Psychology
Revisited


Set forth by Agnew in 2013
A social concern has four elements:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Care about the welfare of others
Desire close ties to certain others
Follow certain moral intuitions
Conform to the behavior and views of others and
to social norms, as well as sanction those who
violate such norms
Argues that social concern has a direct,
negative effect on crime
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Social Concern Theory:
Evolutionary Psychology
Revisited

Social concern can also have indirect,
conditioning, and mediating effects on crime

Individual and circumstantial factors can
affect variation in levels of social concern

Social concern is “natural” and has a
substantial biological basis

Emerged out of the evolutionary process that
allows for cooperative behavior providing a major
survival advantage
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Neuroscience: Neurological
and Biochemical Theories

The newer biosocial approaches tend to
acknowledge the importance of learning, but
they emphasize the extent to which the
learning and conditioning of behavior occur
differently for different individuals because of
neurological or biochemical variants and the
way in which the environment (including the
womb) affects these neurological and
biochemical variations, which are called
polymorphisms
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Neuroscience: Neurological
and Biochemical Theories

Major neuroscientific theories of criminality
include:




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Brain hemispheric theory: psychopaths rely less on
right hemisphere and more on left
Reward dominance theory: reward centers are more
powerful than the inhibitory systems in criminals
Prefrontal lobe theory
Suboptimal arousal theory
Seizuring theory: most controversial; seizures higher
among offenders
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Neuroscience: Neurological
and Biochemical Theories

The newer biosocial theories have focused
considerable attention on family studies
aimed at locating genetic factors by
examining behavioral similarities among
members of the same family, although today
they stress behavioral characteristics

Twin studies are very common as well
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Mednick’s Biosocial Theory

Mednick proposed that certain high-risks
individuals inherited an autonomic nervous
system (ANS) that is less sensitive to
environmental stimuli which makes it less likely
that they will develop the responses necessary
to inhibit antisocial behavior

Stresses that an individual with a normal ANS
will experience a reduction of fear immediately
on inhibiting antisocial activity and that, because
this fear reduction is a powerful reinforcement,
that person will learn to inhibit such activity
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Other Biosocial Theories

Theories arguing for disorders of the central
nervous system:

Cortical immaturity hypothesis
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Hypoarousal hypothesis

Suboptimal arousal theory – differences in ANS make
people less sensitive to environmental stimuli

Supported in EEGs

“Hypoarousal” is measured by low pulse rate, low blood
pressure, and reduced skin conductance of electricity

Subjects characterized by hypoarousal show much lower
responses to environmental stimuli than “normal” subjects
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Other Biosocial Theories

Fearlessness theory: Low levels of arousal
are markers for low levels of fear and that
such fearless types are simply less likely to
avoid situations that bring trouble with the law

Stimulation theory: Such low arousal
represents an unpleasant psychological state
resulting in such types to seek out trouble to
get sensory stimulation to avoid boredom
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Brain Development and Crime

New techniques include computed tomography
(CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI),
positron emission tomography (PET), and single
photon emission tomography (SPECT)

Biosocial criminologists have concentrated on
the possibility that structural abnormalities of the
brain may be associated with brain dysfunctions
that are associated with criminal activity
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Brain Development and Crime

Violence may be associated with frontal lobe
dysfunction, whereas sex offenses may be
associated with temporal lobe dysfunction

Frontal lobes are associated with the executive
cognitive functions

Frontal lobe dysfunction hypothesis

Left prefrontal lobe = positive affect; right prefrontal
lobe = negative affect and withdrawal behavior

Dorsolateral lobe damage = distractibility and poor
executive functioning; orbitofrontal lobe = conduct
disorder and antisocial personality disorder
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Brain Development and Crime
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The brain is a “triune system” consisting of the
mid-brain (limbic system), R-complex (reticular
activating system – RAS), and the prefrontal
lobes
Psychopaths have less activity in the RAS and
more in the bilateral frontal temporal cortex
Amygdalae are smaller in psychopaths making
them less likely to feel a fear response and have
trouble registering the fear of victims
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Brain Development and Crime

Long history of tracing various forms of
deviant behavior to the possibility of head
injury

The somatic marker hypothesis maintains that
decision making entails both cognitive and
emotional processing to evaluate the reward
value of various behavioral choices, with “somatic
markers” being formed in the brain as a
consequence of various action-outcome
sequences experienced in the past
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Biochemical Theories

Fishbein has offered a theory that traces
much of the problem of intractable offenders
to an impaired hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
axis (HPA), which has a negative effect on
executive cognitive functions

HPA impairment is associated with environmental
stress

Severe stress leads to increased cortical levels
causing the structures comprising the HPA to shrink
resulting in memory and cognitive decline
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Biochemical Theories

Recent biochemical theories have focused on
sex hormones and neurotransmitters

Sex hormone theory has been concentrated on
possible connections between testosterone and
aggression

Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory of criminality:
The biochemical effect of testosterone lowers
neurological sensitivity to environmental stimuli, which
is conducive to “acting out” and problems with
emotional control, and it also tends to impair higher
thought by producing a shift in the functioning of brain
hemispheres
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Biochemical Theories

Theorists have suggested that premenstrual
syndrome (PMS) aw well as postpartum
depression are the biochemical factors that
affect women

Other neurotransmitters identified by theorists
and researchers linked to aggression are low
levels of serotonin, low levels of dopamine, and
high levels of norepinephrine

Exercise of self-control needs sufficient glucose
levels
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Biochemical Theories

Reduced volume and surface deformations in
the amygdalaes (along with differences in the
middle frontal and orbitofrontal cortices)
arefound in “unsuccessful” psychopaths with
criminal convictions versus “successful”
psychopaths who have avoided convictions

Impulsiveness and negative emotionality are
linked to low levels of serotonin, and there are
now over 100 studies linking low levels of selfcontrol to low levels of serotonin
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Biochemical Theories

The association between biochemical factors
and antisocial behavior is hard to study


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Which came first?
Time ordering issues
Crime v. criminality

According to Walsh criminality is the
predisposition to engage in crime, while Turk
defines criminality as a consequence of power
struggles over which behavior should be regarded
as crime
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Biochemical Theories

Polymorphisms for genes regulating
dopamine and serotonin have shown
significant relationships to “criminality”
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Biochemical Theories

One perplexing problem in criminology is the
age-crime curve

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Evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory points to the
dramatic biochemical increase in testosterone during
male adolescence
Juveniles have more dominant nucleus accumbens
activity compared to the amount of activity in the
prefrontal cortex (PFC) relative to younger children
and adults


Combined with increased testosterone increases likelihood
of antisocial behavior and associated with dominance rather
than aggression
Dopamine rises in adolescence
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Biochemical Theories

Moffitt’s life-course persistent (LCP) and
adolescence-limited offenders (AL)

LCPs have low IQ, hyperactivity, inattentiveness,
negative emotionality, low impulsive control


Neurological problems interacting with the
environment leads to antisocial behavior
ALs find antisocial behavior functional and
adaptive

Characterized as going through a phase
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Neuroscience: Assessment

Advanced rapidly in the past two decades

Gives us an understanding of why cognitive
behavioral therapies are able to succeed with
offenders

Much work left to be done
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Genetics

The genetic approach may be subdivided into
behavior genetics, molecular genetics, and
epigenetics

Explore relationships between genotypes and
phenotypes

Genotypes – extent that traits are inherited

Phenotypes – the processes in which the above
occurs

And how does the environment alter gene functioning
without affecting the basic DNA
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Behavioral Genetics



Tries to tease out the heritability component
from the environmental contribution to various
traits
Significant heritability for fearlessness,
aggressiveness, sensation seeking, impulsivity,
and low IQ
Began with the observation that females are less
involved in antisocial behavior than males


Males also tend to exhibit low self-control and are
more aggressive in general
Girls show fear earlier than boys
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Behavior Genetics

Gender differences have suggested the
genetic difference between males and
females might be associated with crime

Traces intervening variables that increase the
likelihood of criminal activity

Must remember, what is inherited is a
tendency to respond to certain environmental
forces in terms of general predispositions and
not a specific behavior
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Molecular Genetics

Molecular genetics focuses upon analysis of the
detailed processes by which genetics has its
effects upon traits and behaviors, with special
attention to the deep molecular structure of
substances such as deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA)

There is nearly unanimous agreement that there is no
such thing as a “gene” for crime

Whether a genetic predisposition toward criminal
activity is encouraged or discouraged depends upon
the environment
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Molecular Genetics

The relationship between gene and
environment is referred to as the “gene ×
environment correlation”
1.
Passive: Children inherit both their genes and
their environment from their parents
2.
Active: Reflect the tendency for people to seek
out environments to which they are predisposed
3.
Evocative: Different people also evoke different
responses from their environments even when
the latter are identical
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Epigenetics

Environmental factors tend to alter gene
functioning without affecting the molecular
structure of DNA at all by activating or
deactivating particular aspects

Inheritance of characteristics acquired by parents that
were never part of the gene pool

Epigenome operates to adapt the organism to the
particular environment in which it will find itself

Epigenetics has shown that the diet of the pregnant
woman may actually affect her grandchildren and
great grandchildren
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Genetics: Assessment

Behavior genetics, molecular genetics, and epigenetics
focus on the search for relationships between genotypes
and phenotypes



Genotypes is a question of where to look for the “independent
variable” that is associated with the traits and behaviors in which
biosocial criminology is interested
Biosocial criminologists now search for intervening variables that
seem to link certain genotypes to general categories of law
violation such as violent crime
Exploring how certain genotypes tend to be associated with
intervening variables such as “impulsivity” or “fearlessness” that
might tend to lead to yet another intervening variable in the form
of “antisocial behavior,” some of which may entail criminality

IQ example
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications
Conclusion

Evolutionary psychology, neuroscience, and
genetics have made significant contributions
to biosocial theory within criminology


Some criminologists have tended to react with
almost reflexive resistance to this new
criminological paradigm
However, theorists need to work together and
learn from one another
Lilly, Cullen, Ball, Criminological Theory Sixth
Edition. ©2015 SAGE Publications