* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Chapter II Theoretical review 2.1 Grammar In this research, the
Serbo-Croatian grammar wikipedia , lookup
Ancient Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
Portuguese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Chinese grammar wikipedia , lookup
Context-free grammar wikipedia , lookup
Probabilistic context-free grammar wikipedia , lookup
Latin syntax wikipedia , lookup
Sanskrit grammar wikipedia , lookup
French grammar wikipedia , lookup
Scottish Gaelic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Modern Greek grammar wikipedia , lookup
Pipil grammar wikipedia , lookup
English clause syntax wikipedia , lookup
Construction grammar wikipedia , lookup
Arabic grammar wikipedia , lookup
Polish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Malay grammar wikipedia , lookup
Transformational grammar wikipedia , lookup
Spanish pronouns wikipedia , lookup
Sotho parts of speech wikipedia , lookup
Junction Grammar wikipedia , lookup
Esperanto grammar wikipedia , lookup
Spanish grammar wikipedia , lookup
Chapter II Theoretical review 2.1 Grammar In this research, the writer wants to find out how the fourth semester students in Bina Nusantara University use adjective clause to combine sentences. The adjective clause as a part of grammar has a high relevance with English Language because it linked each other between grammar and English language which means to learned adjective clause we must understand about grammar first. 2.1.1 Grammar definition Batstone (1994, p 136) gave definition of grammar that it is an identification of systematic regularities in language. In his book that entitled Grammar, Swan (2005, p 3) gave some definitions of the word grammar from point of view of some people about grammar. According to Swan (2005, p 3), grammar can be having different meaning for different people and many of them have negative definition for grammar. For example of it, the writer quotes some meanings written by Swan that describe the negative definition of grammar: • "Something that young people for today are not taught properly at school, as a result of which the language is going to the dogs." • "A collection of mysterious terminology: 'auxiliary', 'past participle', 'relative clause', 'complement'." 6 • "A cluster of prohibitions that make people worry about whether they speak their own language properly ('Don't say between you and I'; 'Don't split infinitives'; 'Less people is wrong; You should say fewer people'; and so on) • "A galaxy of apparently arbitrary rules which make foreign languages unnecessarily difficult communication: for and seem to example, French get in the way of natural gender; German word order; Russian case endings; honorific verb forms in Japanese." • "A large dusty book full of any of the above." Also Swan (2005, p 3) gave a statement that even if someone feels he/she knows pretty well what grammar is, he or she might not be able to defme the definition of 'What is grammar?' easily. Now "What is Grammar?", Further Swan considered that this question was a easy question, but if someone asked it to us we can not define clearly the definition of grammar itself. Perhaps this means we can not find the meaning easily. This also stated by Swan (2005, p 3) that although reference books are not a great deal of help to find the clear definition about grammar in dictionary, most of it only give incomplete definition and also gives no indication of the function of grammar. As an illustration Swan (2005, p 3) described it as if one defined a bus as a 'large vehicle constructed on one or two levels' without mentioning that it is used for a public transport. Swan (2005, p 4) said that to know what the real meaning and definition of grammar is, someone need to know the purpose of grammar itsel£ Imagine that in our 7 mind of the questions that have relation with grammar itself can be excellent starting point for our enquiry such as "Why do we need 'rules for combining words into sentences' anyway? Couldn't we manage well enough just by saying the words?" will became a perfectly sensible question. Swan also stated that the best way to have clear understanding of the meaning of grammar, the use of it, and the necessary what that related with it , is in fact to try to imagine language without it. 2.1.2 Language without grammar Batstone (1994, p 3) wrote in his book that language needs a grammar, because without it language will became seriously handicapped. To do effective communication in a language, someone must have an ability to put granunar to use in a variety of situations. Swan (2005, p 4-5) gave illustration of an experiment that illustrate human when they invent a language. It starts from human baby that can only cries and grunts, use facial expressions, gestures and then invent words. After that they can use words to differentiate one with another thing. Not only that, they also realize that words is not only for people and thing but also for characteristics, like 'big', 'delicious', 'red', 'cold', and etc. Finally they can combine words to indicate events or states of affairs. This is an illustration ofhow human invented language. Further, Swan (2005, p 6) said that although humans already invented language but they still have problems, they still has some limitation in using language. Swan also added three particular problems: 1. Difficulties in specified exact meanings in situations that involve more 8 meaning. Context will often remove the ambiguity, but this will not always be the case. 2. Language can enable you to identify and talk about things but can not clarify it and relationship between it. 3. You cannot get beyond requests and affirmative statements, so we need a way of saying what word goes with what, a way of expressing agency and other relationships, and a way of indicating the communicative status of your utterances, status, question, suggestion, negation, or etc. Finally the need of grammar was established. Perhaps this is the reason why language needs grammar. 2.1.3 Alternative in English grammar Alternative in a language or a grammar cannot be considered as a mistake. Swan (2005, p 63) said someone might use a familiar structure which they understood or mastered as children. Most people, whose speech is characterized by non-standard grammar, switch to more standard forms in writing. However, there is a great deal of difference between written and spoken language. Sometimes non-standard grammar appears in writing as a alternative but it still can be accepted and use in a speech. Further Swan (2005, p 64) stated that a standard language is not linguistically better; it simplify the variety for official purposes. However, Swan also said that each individual can have his/her own way to express themselves in different language situation. 9 2.2 Adjective clause 2.2.1 Definition of adjective clause According to Medwell, Moore, Wray, Griffiths (2001, p 71) a clause is a set of related words containing a subject and a verb. Clauses can be categorized into independent and dependent clause. And according to Roberts (1954, p 309) an adjective clause is a clause used to modify a substantive or subordinate clause which regularly follows the substantive it modifies. In Fundamental of English grammar, Azar (1992, p 309) stated that independent clause is a main clause and it can stand alone as a sentence and a dependent clause must be connected to an independent clause because it can not stand alone as a sentences. Almost the same with Azar, Medwell et a! (2001, p 71) also states that subordinate clause is another term of dependent clause which means that subordinate to another element (independent clause) and depend on that other element for its meaning. In the Golden's Concise English grammar, Strumpf and Douglas (1994, p 341) also explained that subordinate clause cannot stand alone because it depends on the main clause for meaning. Strumpf and Douglas stated about complex sentence which is a result from subordinate clause to a main clause by using a connecting word. From this explanation we know that sentences that have adjective clauses was categorized as complex sentences. Also, Medwell et a! (2001, p 73) said that relative or adjective clause are dependent clause that are introduced by a connecting word (that, which, who, whom, whose, where, and when) and relative clause can be either restrictive or non restrictive. According to Strumpf and Douglas (1994, p 342-347) relative clause are set up 10 as who, whom and which, relative adverbs such as when and where and relative determiners such as which and whose. However Strumpf and Douglas (1994, p 343-346) said that a relative pronoun is a complicated word, it introduces a relative clause, joins that clause to a main clause, but it also stands for a noun. As a relative pronoun who have two forms depending on the use in relative clause. It is used as nominative case usage then the form will be who, but if it used as objective case usage then the form will be whom. Relative adverbs when and where join relative clauses to main clause in the same way that relative pronoun do but its functions as adverbials. The pronoun whose and which are two common examples of relative determiners, these words modify the noun that follow them in the relative clauses like an article. Strumpf arid Douglas (1994, P 346) also explained that a determiner would modify the nouus that follow them and also it is always preceded by a preposition. 2.2.2 Structure in adjective clause According to Yule (1998, p 240), adjectives typically come before noun, but relative clauses come after noun. He also adds that there is always close connection between antecedent and the relative pronoun. Yule (1998, p 240) gave some example of several different relative pronouns: a. I'm kind of person who is always losing thing. b. Right now, I can't find a book that I need for school. c. It's a brand new book which I just bought last week.4. d. It'd for s class with teacher whom I really like. 11 Moreover, Yule (1998, p 241) also stated that relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, and that) are used in different grammatical roles within relative clause, those are roles of subject, object and after-preposition and possessive relatives. Yule (1998, p 241-243) also gave some explanation and example for grammatical roles within the relative clause: I. Subject relatives In subject relative the relative pronoun that used are that, who and which. Here is some example in subject relatives: [1] a. Did you see the man? The man was here. b. Did you see the man who was here? In this example the man is replaced by relative pronoun who as subject relative. [2] a. Did you take the book? The book was on the desk. b. Did you take the book which was on the desk. In this example the book is replaced by relative pronoun which as subject relative. [3] a. I didn't see the man that was here b. And I didn't take the book that was on the desk. Yule also said that that found being used as a subject relative as shown in [3] and in contemporary spoken English that is found more often than which in this construction. 12 2. Object relatives In object relative the relative pronouns used are that, whom and which. Here is example in object relatives: [4] a. Did you like the woman? You met the woman. b. Did you like the woman whom you met? [5] a. Did you enjoy the film? You saw the film. B Did you enjoy the film which you saw? In example [6] whom is replaced the woman and in example [7] which is replaced the film. Although the woman and the film are after verb, as objects, but the relative pronouns are still placed at the beginning of the adjective clause. In addition to whom and which, the relative pronoun that is frequently used as an object relative. According to Yule, in casual conversational speech, beside using that there is often no relative pronoun or known as a zero relative [6] a. I didn't like the woman that I met. b. I didn't like the film that I saw. c. I don't want to talk about the woman rJ I met The forms whom and which are usually used in formal language than the forms of that and fi1 (zero relative). 3. After-Preposition relatives The forms whom and which are also used when relative pronoun come directly after prepositions, for example: [7] a. Where is the person? You talked to the person 13 [8] a. Where is the hotel? You stayed in the hotel. b. Where is the hotel in which you stayed? Yule also gave explanation that in this position, that cannot be used instead of whom or which. However, that can be used if the preposition is placed at the end of the clause. [9] a. Can I meet the person that you talked to? b. Can we find the hotel that you stayed in? Zero relative also can use in this form, according to Yule (1998, P 243) it more common than using that if the preposition is placed at the end of sentence. [10] a. Mary knows the person 0 I talked to. b. And she'll remember the hotel0 we stayed in. However, even these structure with stranded prepositions are much more frequent in contemporary English usage but those with fronted prepositions (to whom, in which) are sounds more formal. 4. Possessive relative The possessive form whose is used to introduce possessive relatives. [11] a. Did you talk to the girl? Her bag was stolen. b. Did you talk to the girl whose bag was stolen? Others alternative for possessive relatives are of which, usually it use after the noun. For example: [12] a. Have you ever lived in a house? The house's roof was leaking. b. Have you ever lived in a house the roof of which was leaking? 14 Further Yule in his book (1998, p 244) summarizes these different forms of relative pronouns in a Table. Subject relatives Object relatives After-Preposition Possessive relative relatives Fronted stranded Who 0 (to) which 0...(to) whose That that (to)whom that ...(to) of which Which which who...(to) whom which...(to) Table 1. Uses of relative pronouns. 2.2.3 Basic meaning in adjective clause In his book Explaining English Grammar, Yule (1998, p 250) also explained about theory of basic meanings in adjective clause. The most obvious meaning distinction in relative clause is between human and non-human referents. Usually who, whom, whose forms are related with human or human-like entities and which tends to related with non-human entities. 15 In Advanced Learner's Grammar, Foley and Hall (2003, p 300) explain about relative pronoun and adverbs and sununarized how to use it by using a table. Pronouns Used for Used as Subject 1 Who Whom object -v People, animals People X '1/ Objects, animals '1/ '1/ which Ideas '1/ '1/ 3 That People, objects, animals -v -v 4 Whose Relationships, possessions '1/ '1/ 5 where places v v 6 when times '1/ '1/ 2 Which Adverb Table 2 . How to use relative pronoun. Having discussed the necessary theoretical framework, the writer will next analyze the data which he took with using theory in this chapter as a reference. The theory in this chapter also became a basic structure which will strengthen the analysis.