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PASS Study Guide #2 – Cells/Heredity, Human Body and Ecology Cells & Heredity Cell Cell Theory Organelle Functions Organelle Similarities & Differences Bacteria & Protists Cellular Processes Genetics Genetic Mutations smallest unit of life that conducts life functions; organelles (parts) cytoplasm, nucleus, cell membrane, vacuole, chloroplasts**, mitochondria, cell wall** (**found only in plant cells); many organelles too small to be seen without aid of microscope; cells vary in size and shape 1) All living things are made of one or more cells; 2) The cell is the basic unit of life; 3) All cells come from preexisting cells. Know the Famous Scientist that helped developed this theory. chloroplast – has chlorophyll & does photosynthesis; vacuole - storage center (water & waste); cytoplasm - holds other organelles; cell membrane - controls what enters and leaves the cell (diffusion – movement of particles or water across membrane from area of high concentration to low concentration & osmosis – diffusion of water across membrane); cell wall – gives support and shape to cell & made mostly of cellulose; nucleus – has DNA & control center; mitochondria/powerhouse – makes energy & does respiration; lysosomes - digesting certain materials Similar - plant and animal have cell membrane, nucleus, mitochondria, and vacuoles Different – plants have cell wall and chloroplasts; plant cells usually have one or more large vacuole(s), while animal cells have smaller vacuoles, if any are present Prokaryotic - cells that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (Bacteria & some Protists); Eukaryotic- cells that contain a membrane bound nucleus and organelles. (Plant, animal, and protist); Unicellular organisms are composed of one cell and would include most protists and bacteria; Multicellular – more than one cell organisms; photosynthetic contain chloroplasts and the pigment chlorophyll (plants and some protists); Non-photosynthesizing lack chloroplasts and chlorophyll (animals) Bacteria – Moneran Kingdom; single celled organism classified by body shapes; (spiral – corkscrew, bacillus – rod, coccus – round) Bacteria helpful – 1)aid in breaking down and absorbing food; 2) used to make a variety of foods including cheese and yogurt; 3) decompose dead organisms and release those nutrients back into the environment. Bacteria harmful – 1) can be pathogens and cause diseases like strep throat, food poisoning, and tuberculosis; 2) Bacteria, such as wheat blight can infect plants that are used as crops. Protists – Protista Kingdom; single celled & live in moist areas; classified by movement & way obtain food; euglena – move by pulling w/flagella (whiplike) & have chloroplast, paramecium – move by beating cilia (hair-like oars) & uses cilia to direct food to its mouth; amoeba – move w/pseudopods (false foot) & use pseudopods to trap food Photosynthesis – occurs in chloroplasts; plants use sunlight to combine (CO2) & (H2O) to make (C6H12O6) & release (O2) Respiration – occurs in mitochondria; plants & animals breakdown (C6H12O6) & (O2) into (CO2) & (H2O) & release energy; use to build, repair & reproduce cells Waste elimination – get rid of harmful waste; waste moves from high concentration to low concentration Mitosis – occurs in nucleus; cell reproduction; makes exact copy of cell; produces 2 identical daughter cells (look like parent cell) from 1 parent cell; use for growth, replacement, & asexual reproduction Genetic information (DNA) is passed from parent to offspring causing offspring to have similar traits as the parents; sex cells (egg & sperm) have ½ o/DNA; Heredity/inheritance – passing of traits from one generation to next Chromosomes – structure in nucleus that contains DNA Genes – segment of DNA that determines inherited trait; responsible for inherited characteristics that distinguish one individual from another; come in pairs (or two alleles); genes are expressed by genotype – set of genes carried by organism, phenotype – physical expression o/gene; Dominant trait—always expressed (capital letters); Recessive trait—expressed if two recessive alleles are present (lowercase letters); Homozygous – two copies of same allele dominant or recessive; Heterozygous – one dominant & one recessive allele. DNA has 4 nitrogenous base pairs (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine) and a phosphorous and sugar backbone; adenine always pairs with the thymine & cytosine always pairs with the guanine; RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a single strand of nitrogenous base pairs with a phosphorous and sugar backbone. RNA is used by the cell to aid the process of DNA transcription and translation. Inherited Traits – characteristics passed from parent to offspring (eye color, eye shape, etc); dominant traits - always be expressed in the phenotype. Alleles for dominant traits are represented by capital letters; recessive traits – only expressed in the phenotype if two recessive alleles are present. Alleles for recessive traits are represented by lowercase letters Mutation - change in the genes of an organism. Many mutations occur randomly where others can be the result of some environmental exposure; can be beneficial, harmful, or have neutral effect on the organism; EX. genetic disorder sickle cell anemia is harmful to the persons that have that disorder. However, the disorder arises from a mutation to protect humans from Malaria; most mutations are automatically repaired by enzymes and have no effect; when not repaired, the resulting altered chromosome or gene structure is then passed to the offspring; If the mutant cell is a body cell (somatic cell), the daughter cells can be affected by the altered DNA, but the mutation will not be passed to the offspring of the organism (cause cancers); If the mutant cell is a gamete (sex cell), the altered DNA will be transmitted to the embryo and may be passed to subsequent generations (cause genetic disorders). ● In some cases mutations are beneficial to organisms. Beneficial mutations are changes that may be useful to organisms in different or changing environments. These mutations result in phenotypes that are favored by natural selection and increase in a population Deletion - when DNA is removed or deleted. Insertions - when DNA is inserted into another section of DNA. Frameshift - an insertion or deletion that is not in a multiple of three. Translocation - when large chunks of DNA is Genetic Engineering Punnett Square Inherited Traits Vs. Acquired Traits swapped between non-homologous chromosomes. Genetic engineering is the manipulation of an organism’s genes (genome). Selective breeding - a process humans use to breed or reinforce desired traits into a particular organism. Ex. Diversity of dogs; Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) - used in food or in other commercial applications. Ex. resistance to plant diseases can be added to corn’s genome so the plant is not affected by these diseases; Biomedical research - employs a variety of techniques to advance medical science and improve human lives. EX. the human genome project has mapped the entire human genome. This information can be used to inform individuals during genetic counselling and when making health decisions. Used determine the possibilities of the combinations of alleles that the offspring may receive; tool used to predict the ratio or percentage of the possible genes that an offspring will have based on the genes of the parent; alleles for one parent are placed at the top and the alleles of the other parent are placed on the left; individual squares show the possibilities of allele pairs in the offspring; purebred genotype- two alleles are the same (TT or tt); hybrid genotype two alleles are different (Tt); monohybrid cross- cross that shows the inheritance of a single characteristic; It is sometimes difficult to predict certain traits in humans (for example hair color or eye color) because there may be several different genes that control these traits. You need to be able to determine the genotypic ratios and phenotypic ratios of monohybrid crosses. Incomplete dominance is a condition when the dominant allele does not completely mask the recessive. As a result some of the recessive trait will be observed in the phenotype. An example of an incomplete dominance in plants may be color of flowers. The color red is dominant over the recessive color white. Pink flowers are a result of a blending of red and white; Co-dominance is a condition when there is more than one dominant allele. As a result, both alleles will be expressed in the phenotype. An example of co-dominance in plants may be the color of the flowers. If both red and white alleles are dominant, both traits will be expressed in the flower. The AB blood type in humans is another example of co-dominance. Inherited trait- genetically determined characteristic that distinguishes one organism from another organism ( some dominant & some recessive & some neither); ex inherited trait in plants – color of flowers; ex. Inherited trait in animals – eye color Acquired trait – influenced by environmental factors (temperature, nutrients, injuries, disease, exposure to sun, living conditions) Human Body Levels of Organization of Human Body System Major Organs Function of Major Organs cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism; cell – basic unit of structure & function in body, ex. neuron (nerve), blood, & bone cells; tissues – group or cells working together, ex. nerve tissue – carries impulses to & from the brain, muscle tissue – make body parts move by contracting & shortening, epithelial tissue – covers surfaces o/body, connective tissue – connects all parts of body and provide support (tendons (muscle to bone), ligament (bone to bone), cartilage (flexible cushion)); organ – group of two or more tissues, ex. heart; organ system (system) – group of organs working together (CRIS DEERMIN) circulatory, respiratory, integumentary (skin), skeletal, digestive, excretory, endocrine, reproductive, muscular, immune, & nervous Circulatory – heart, blood vessels (arteries, capillaries, veins); Respiratory – nose, trachea, bronchi, lungs, diaphragm; Digestive - mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines, rectum, anus (2 ndary – liver, gallbladder, pancreas); Excretory – kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra; Nervous – brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves; Muscular – skeletal, smooth, cardiac muscles; Skeletal – bones; Integumentary - skin Heart – causes blood to flow through body by its pumping action Blood vessels – tubes that carry blood through out entire body (Artery – carries blood with oxygen & nutrients to all parts of body, Veins – carries waste products from all parts of body back to heart, Capillaries – small vessels where oxygen & nutrients leave the blood to go into cells & carbon dioxide & other waste products enter blood from cells) Nose – collects air from the environment & moistens & heats the air before it enters trachea Trachea – windpipe; moves air from nose to lungs Bronchi – tubes that move air from trachea to lungs Lungs - main organs where gases are exchanged between air & blood (Alveoli – in lungs where gas exchange takes place) Diaphragm – muscle that aids in breathing Mouth – breaks down food into smaller pieces (Mechanical Digestion – process of chewing, Chemical Digestion – started by saliva in mouth) Esophagus – transport tube; carries chewed food to stomach Stomach – continues mechanical digestion; secretes gastric juices that continue chemical digestion started in mouth Small intestines – organ where most of the chemical digestion of food takes place; absorbs nutrients Large intestines – organ that absorbs water from food taken into bloodstream; prepares undigested food for elimination Rectum – short tube that stores solid waste Anus – eliminates solid waste Liver – organ that produces bile (Bile – breaks up fat particles) Gallbladder – organ that stores bile Pancreas – organ that produces digestive juices that break down food in small intestine kidneys – get rid of urea (excess water) & other waste materials released by cells – eliminated as urine Ureters – tubes that connect each kidney to bladder Bladder – saclike muscular organ; stores urine until released Urethra – tube which urine passes before removed from body Brain – control & coordinates activities of body Relationships of Major Systems Diseases Spinal cord – bundle of nerves from brain to center of back vertebrae; connects to peripheral nerves Peripheral nerves – branch out from spinal cord and connect to rest of body; transmit signal to & from brain Skeletal muscles – voluntary muscle attached to bones; provide force need to move bones Smooth muscles – involuntary muscles control many types of movement in body Cardiac muscles – involuntary muscle that form the heart Bones – provide shape and support for body; protects many organs and structures; produce blood cells; store minerals (Joints – where two bones meet) Skin- covers body; prevents loss of water; protect from infection & injury; regulates body temperature; get rid of waste (sweat), receive information from environment; makes vitamin D All body systems are dependent upon the circulatory system to transport materials; circulatory system works with the excretory system to help remove wastes from the Body; respiratory system works with the circulatory system to make sure that oxygen (O2) reaches the bloodstream and carbon dioxide (CO2) is removed from the bloodstream; digestive system works with the circulatory system to make sure that nutrients made available by digestion (for example glucose) get to the cells of the body; nervous system works with the muscular and skeletal systems to direct behavior and Movement; nervous system controls internal processes in the body (for example digestion and circulation); Muscles control the movement of materials through some organs (for example the stomach, intestines, and the heart); muscular and skeletal systems work together to help the body move. Disease - condition that does not allow the body to function normally; affects organs or organ systems; either infectious or noninfectious Infectious disease – caused by pathogens (bacteria, virus, protist, fungus) from contaminated area, another person, animal bite, or environment; pathogens damage single cell or attack the entire system; ex. cold, flu, athlete’s foot, AIDS, strep throat, tetanus, pneumonia, malaria Cold – caused by virus infecting respiratory system; multiples and attacks mucous membranes of nose & throat causing side effects of sore throat, runny nose, & fever Flu – caused by viral infection of respiratory system; causes fever, muscle aches, severe cough, & lasts longer than cold Athlete’s foot – caused by fugal infection of skin on feet; obtained from public environment; grows in warm, moist areas between toes; can be difficult to cure AIDS - Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); attacks cells of immune system making organism unable to fight off pathogens Strep throat – caused by bacterial infection; side effects (mild or severe) are fever, pain, redness, & swelling of throat and tonsils tetanus (caused by bacteria), pneumonia (caused by a virus or bacteria), or malaria (caused by a protist spread by mosquitoes) Noninfectious disease - caused by malfunctions in body systems that are either inherited or caused by environmental factors; ex. diabetes, Parkinson’s disease, skin cancer, asthma, allergies, arthritis, heart disease, & multiple sclerosis Diabetes – caused by inability to produce or use insulin properly; causes high glucose level in blood; can lead to kidney disease, cause vision problems, or heart disease Parkinson’s Disease – affects cells in nervous system causing them to stop affecting muscular system; symptoms are serve shaking (tremors) & disabilities involving movement; no cure Skin Cancer – damages outer layer skin cells; caused by damaging ultraviolet rays (UV) from the sun or tanning beds & heredity Asthma – affects lungs and airways that deliver air to lungs; cause periodic attacks of wheezing and difficulty breathing when airways inflame due to dust, mold, pets, exercise, or cold weather Ecology Levels of Organization in the Environment Food Chain, Food Web, Energy Pyramid Changes in the Environment Smallest to largest – species/organism, population, community, ecosystem, biome; defined by type and # organisms or abiotic factors present; populations compete for food, water, space, & mates; communities interact by obtaining & use of food, space, & resources; ecosystem first level to include abiotic factors Habitat – place where organism lives; niche – role of organism in environment Organisms have energy roles determined by how it obtains energy and interacts with others; roles are producer, consumer, or decomposer; flow of energy represented by food chain, food web, and energy pyramid Food Chain use pictures, arrows, and words to show movement of energy through trophic levels; trophic level – position occupied by organism (what it eats, what eats it); level 1 – producer, level 2 – herbivore, level 3 predators, level 4 or 5 – carnivores and top carnivores Food Web- shows interconnecting food chains uses pictures, arrows, and words; models who consumes whom or what Energy pyramid – show amount of energy moving through trophic levels in food chain; producer has most energy; energy decreases as move up Natural hazards, changes in population, and limiting factors; cause competition for food, water, space, & shelter Natural Hazards (landslides, wildfires, floods); landslides – falling, sliding, flowing on slope movement Soil Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources Symbiotic Relationships of rock, earth, debris; occur when soil is moist and on slope; caused by rain, floods, earthquakes, & humans; effects- blocks roads, destroy homes/habitats, disrupt power lines; wildfires – naturally, accidentally, or intentionally occurring forest fire; can be beneficial to most plant growth; effects – allow some seeds to break open to germinate (reproduce), increase air pollution, destroy homes/habitats; floods – usually high water stage in which water overflows its natural or artificial banks onto dry land; two types (regular & flash flood); effects – damage property, endanger humans/animals, soil erosion, creates fertile soil Changes in populations (birth, death, immigration, & emigration); occur when new members enter or leave population; population density – number of organisms in given amount of space; birth rate - # births; death rate- # deaths; immigration – organism moves in; emigration – organism moves out The natural slowing of population growth as it nears Earth’s carrying capacity is due to an increase in the death rate and a decrease in the birth rate as a result of: Food and water shortages, Pollution of the environment, Spread of diseases; An increasing population can have an effect on the amount of available clean water; If clean water is being depleted at a greater rate than it can be purified, it is not considered renewable in our lifetime. An increasing population can have an effect on the amount of waste that is produced. Although there are mechanisms in place to control the disposal of some waste products, more waste is produced than can be managed effectively; Some waste products require complicated and costly means for removal once they are introduced into the environment. Limiting factors – affect # organisms environment can support; carrying capacity – max # organisms that can survive in environment; climate (temperature & # rainfall in area) changes effect populations; decrease of availability to food, water, space,& shelter (those that get them survive – those that don’t move or die) MVP abiotic factor because everything is directly or indirectly dependent on it; effects types of plants that grow and animal survival; properties that can be observed (soil profile, composition, texture, particle size); properties that can be measured (permeability, pH) Soil profile – horizons (layers) topsoil, subsoil, & parent material; topsoil where plants grow/ animal live & has nutrients Composition – rock, minerals, humus (decayed organic material), air, & water; silt, sand, & clay come from weathered rock & determine soil type; soil type effected by plants, climate, time, & slope Texture- determined by proportions particle sizes; names are loam, sandy clay loam, silt loam, or clay Particle size – classified from coarse to fine sand to silt to clay; gravel – particles larger that 2mm; effects amount of water absorbed & used by plants/animals Permeability – how freely water flows through open pores (space); closer particles are less permeable; determined by calculating rate of drainage pH – how basic or acidic the soil is (usually 4-10); measured by indicators; plant grows with ph 5 to 7; lime- fertilizer alters pH allowing plants to obtain nutrients from soil Renewable resources – replaced naturally @ rate greater or equal to rate used; (ex. Air (replaced by photosynthesis), freshwater (replaced by water cycle), sunlight (available for billions of years), soil (replaced by topsoil), living things (replaced by births)) Nonrenewable resources- exhaustible; use at rate faster than naturally replaced; (ex. Fossil fuels(coal, oil, natural gas), diamonds, metals, minerals); takes millions of years to replace Ex of depletion (soil without vegetation erodes needed topsoil, increase population demands decrease freshwater, removing trees without replanting) Conservation – reduce (use another resource walking vs. car), reuse (use resource again without changing it (washing drinking glass), recycle (reprocess resource to use again as another item), protect (prevent loss of resource) Competition - a relationship that occurs when two or more organisms need the same resource at the same time; can be among the members of the same or different species and usually occurs with organisms that share the same niche; Two species with identical ecological niches cannot coexist in the same habitat; decreases the population of a species less adapted to compete for a particular resource Symbiosis – organisms living together with direct contact; Symbiotic relationships include parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism. Parasitism – one organism (the parasite) benefits at the expense of the other organism (the host). In general, the parasite does not kill the host; Some parasites live within the host, such as tape worms, heartworms, or bacteria. Some parasites feed on the external surface of a host, such as aphids, fleas, or mistletoe; parasite-host populations that have survived have been those where neither has a devastating effect on the other; Parasitism that results in the rapid death of the host is devastating to both the parasite and the host populations; It is important that the host survive and thrive long enough for the parasite to reproduce and spread. Mutualism - both organisms benefit by working together; For example, bacteria, which have the ability to digest wood, live within the digestive tracts of termites; plant roots provide food for fungi that break Invasive Species down nutrients the plant needs. Commensalism - one organism benefits and the organism is not affected; EX. barnacles that attach to whales are dispersed to different environments where they can obtain food and reproduce; burdock seeds that attach to organisms and are carried to locations where they can germinate. Predator- Prey Relationships Predation- interaction between species in which one species (the predator) hunts, kills, and eats the other (prey). This interaction helps regulate the population within an ecosystem thereby causing it to become stable; Fluctuations in predator–prey populations are predictable. At some point the prey population grows so numerous that they are easy to find. Invasive species Impact: can change an entire habitat by occupying the same niche as native species; That in turn causes unnatural competition among organisms. Environmental pressure then increases as the carrying capacity of the ecosystem is reached; Native species that are beneficial to the environment can be crowded out or replaced by the invasive species. EX. The zebra mussel and its effect on the aquatic marine ecosystems of the great lakes are well documented & red fire ant of South America that has infiltrated the southeastern US and continues to spread. 3 Ways Human can Respond to Invasive Species: Physical Control - this would entail erecting barriers to prevent new species from entering new environments. This can also include physical removal of new species; Chemical Control - applying poisons (pesticides or herbicides) to eliminate new species; Biological Control - uses living organisms to reduce or completely eliminate the invasive species. In some cases the control organism will prey on the invasive species or in other cases the control organism causes disease in the target species.