Download 2- Achieving coherence through grammatical consistency

CONTENTS
Page
Punctuation
1-Capitalization & Practice ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
2- Comma & Practice ………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………………….. 2
3- Period & Practice ………………….……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2
4-Semicolon & Practice ……………………….………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
5-Colon & Practice …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3
6-Quotation Marks , Apostrophe ,Hyphen , & Practice ………………………………………………………………………3
Open to Ideas,
7- Run-On Sentences & Practice ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4
Space & Time
Types of Sentences
1-Simple Sentence ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………… 5
2-Compund Sentence ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5
3-Complex Sentence ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5
4-Compund -Complex Sentence …………………………………………………………………………………………………………5
5-Practice ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………….. 6
Hints on How to Improve Expressions
1-Transitional Signals …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7
2-Sample and Practice ………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………… 8
3-Relative Pronouns………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10
4-Practice ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 11
Usage
1- Subject-Verb Agreement & Practice …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12
2-Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement & Practice ………………………………………………………………………………… 13
3-Adjectives vs. Adverb Practice………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 15
4-Double Negative & Practice ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 18
5-Misplaced Modifiers & Practice ……………………………………………………………………………………………….…… 19
6-Dangling Modifiers & Practice ………………………………………………………………………………………………….…… 20
Paragraph Writing
1- Brainstorming & Practice …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 21
2- Structuring a Paragraph : Topic Sentence……………………………………………………………………..…………….… 22
3- Organizing Ideas : From General to Specific & Practice ……………………………………………..………………… 23
4- Supporting Sentences & Practice ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 23
5- Sub-supporting Sentences ( Opinion vs. Facts) & Practice ………………………….………………………………… 24
Coherence in Writing
The hands that Guide You
1-What’s Coherence ? ……………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………..
25
2- Coherence through Subject Consistency & Practice ………………………………………………………….………… 25
3- Coherence through Verb Consistency & Practice …………………………………………………………..…………….. 26
4- Coherence through Completeness & Practice …………………………………………………………..……………..…… 26
From Paragraph to Essay
1-What’s an Essay ? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 28
Set by :
2- Essay’s Outline ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
29
Larbi Bayti
3- Composing Introduction & Conclusion …………………………………………………………...……………..………………
29
4- Revision and Proofreading & Practice ………………………………………………………………………….……………… 30
Letter Writing
1-Friendly / Personal Letter ………………………………………………………………………………………………….………….. 33
2-Business Letter ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 36
References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 38
Arab Open University, Jeddah
Set By : Tutor Larbi Bayti
Punctuation
Capitalization Rules
I. The first word in a sentence: Abdullah is admired for his generosity and kindness in the whole town.
2. The pronoun I.
3. Abbreviations and acronyms which are words formed from the first letters of the words in the names of
organizations. : FBI USA UN UNICEF IBM WHO
4. All proper nouns including names of people and their titles. : Professor Jane, Diana, Princess of Wales and
deities: God , Allah .
5- Names of countries cities, villages and towns : Jeddah , Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
6. Names of days, months, and special days: Mother’s Day
7- Names of specific groups of people (nationalities, races), languages, and religions: The Saudis, English, …
8- Names of geographic areas: the Middle East the Southwest .
9- Names of school subjects with course number. Business Administration 7B, German 101, Chemistry l0,
but not names of classes without numbers, except languages: computer science, business administration,
economics, German conversation, English composition…
10- Names of specific organizations (businesses, clubs, schools…). National Students' Club , University of California
11- Titles of stories, books, magazines, newspapers, plays, poems, and movies.: Arab News , Matrix, Time, On Target
12- Don’t capitalize the names of compass directions: east ,west, north, south.
13- Don’t capitalize a title without a name: the general manager , the prime minister, the professor, the prince,
14- Don’t capitalize the names of the seasons: spring , fall , summer
PRACTICE
1- Change small letters to capital letters wherever necessary in the following sentences.
1- farah is a student from iran. she speaks english, french and farsi . her major is chemistry.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
2. there are two important winter holidays in the united states :christmas and new years 's day.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
3. president john f.kennedy was born on may 25,1917, and was assassinated on november 22, 1963.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
4. greenhills college is located in boston, massachusetts.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
5. i am taking four classes this semester: english 40, sociology 32 , and a computer science course.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
6. excuse me! can you please tell me where the golden gate bridge is?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
7. i bought an amazing story last weekend called the old man and the sea by ernest hemingway.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
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2- Comma (,)
Comma is used in the following cases :
1.To separate two or more items in lists of words phrases or clauses :
John, Fred, Harry and Tom
If you think ahead and concentrate, you will pass the exam.
2.Before a coordinating conjunction (but, for, so, yet, and) when it joins independent clause with dependent one:
The food was excellent , but the restaurant was so noisy and not nice.
3.To separate items in dates and addresses : On March 26, 2000, Mark sent a gift to his class mate David
4.After some introductory elements or discourse markers :
Yes, No, Well, Gee, Ok, You know , Let me see, Fine, Great, Good, Now , …
5.After the greetings or the closing expressions in a letter : Dear, Sir, Madam , Sincerely, Faithfully, Yours truly,
6.We use commas to set off a nonessential clause ( information that isn’t important) in a sentence :
Nonessential clauses: The postcard is from Ahmed, who lives in Riyadh.
The gift that Ahmed ,who lives in Riyadh, sent me is expensive and exciting.
3- Period / full stop (.)
Period or full stop is used in the following cases:
1- A statement or a declarative sentence ( not a question (?) or an exclamation (!).
The student wants to open the window.
2- After an abbreviation : Sat. , Franklin K. G. Ballard , Ave. , St. , etc., BC. , A.D., A.M., P.M.
3- After a title : Mr. , Mrs. Ms. Dr. Pr.
PRACTICE
1- Most of the following sentences contain a comma , period and capitalization errors. Insert them where
necessary .
Example: . Some areas of Alaska ,where it always snows , are so remote. We can reach them only by plane.
1. one of the most dangerous assignments for a pilot is flying over the rainy and snowy areas
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. even before he learned to drive a car patrick was flying over the tundra far from his hometown of ohio
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. patrick then keeps a sharp lookout for objects on the ground
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4.she loves to fly and ski but her need to learn skiing on high mountains has made the risk clear.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. the ingredients for vegetarian chili include for instance green peppers beans and tomato sauce
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Semicolon (;)
1- It indicates a pause longer than a comma.
2- Used to separate main clauses especially those not joined by a conjunction :
The due time is over; every student has to submit their project to the tutor .
He wants to be a successful actor, whatever it might cost him ; to realize his dream , he has to be outgoing ,
self-confident , and easygoing.
4-Used between independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb or a transitional expression.
Conjunctive Adverb
: I was tired; therefore, I stopped to rest.
Transitional expression : He is a great runner ; in fact, no one can beat him .
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PRACTICE
1- Insert semicolons where necessary in the following sentences.
Example : The elevator is full ; would you like to use the stairs?
1. One side was willing to negotiate however, the other side refused.
2. I was disappointed in the play in other words, it was terrible.
3. The movie was set in my hometown indeed, I still recognize a lot about its fabulous places.
4. That herb has a strong scent it smells like really awful.
5. Kelly wanted a better job as a result, she started updating her resume.
6. The dog lay down in the sun for a nap the cat joined it soon after .
7. Carl bumped the glass with his elbow the glass hit the floor milk sprayed in all directions.
*** *** ***
Colon (:)
1- It indicates that something is to follow.
The fact is : My roommate is insecure , I don’t trust him .
2-To introduce a quote/citation :
Abraham Lincoln said, “A house divided against itself can never be united. ”
3-When introducing a list of items :
items you will need are : hiking boots , heavy socks and a raincoat.
PRACTICE
1- Insert periods , commas , colons and capitalize where necessary in the following business letter,
Dear Ms Rodrigues
After reviewing the manuscript for your article "media yesterday and today" i am happy to inform you of
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
the magazine's interest in publishing your work. i have one major piece of feedback for you What an informative
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
engaging article! I would love to meet with you on monday morning , around 9 45 to discuss a few minor changes
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..
let me know if this time will be convenient for you you will need to bring one copy of the manuscript your research
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……..
notes and your signed contract.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
yours truly
colin fong
*** *** ***
Quotation Marks ( “ ’’)
1- They are used to indicate a direct speech or quotation; a direct quotation generally begins with a capital letter
He said, “ You’re supposed to be here on time.”
2- Any punctuation mark such as period, question mark, exclamation mark … are placed inside the quotation
marks : ‘‘ Why did not you buy some meat while you’re outside? ” she asked.
3- When the direct speech is split by the introductory verb, a comma is used after the introductory verb.
“ I must ,’’ he said, “ leave now as I have some errands to run.”
Apostrophe ( ` )
Used in contraction and ownership : don`t , teacher`s book.
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Hyphen (-)
1- Hyphen is used to link two or more words: son-in-law , round-of-the mill ( very ordinary ) , long-hair man ,
twenty-two-year old guy ….
2- To form a compound adjective: second-hand car , first-rate seat ….
PRACTICE
On the lines provided, rewrite the following dialogue and correct any error in the use of quotation marks
and other punctuation marks .
What did Steve give you for your birthday? asked Marcia. A pet frog replied Greg, and I named it after him. A
frog named Steve asked Marcia. What does Steve think about having a frog named after him? she thought . Well
said Greg when I told him he was pretty surprised .
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
*** *** ***
Run-on sentences
Run-on sentences or fused sentences are compound sentences that do not contain proper punctuation between the
independent clauses.
Incorrect: The television programs are mirrors of society but their reflections are often exaggerated.(Run-on sentence)
Correct: The television programs are mirrors of society, but their reflections are often exaggerated.
PRACTICE
1- Identify each word group below by writing to the left of the item number R for run-on sentence, or S
for complete sentence.
Example:
R
He really wanted to spend his summer vacation abroad however he didn’t save much money.
_____ 1. If you ask me people didn't seem to be having much fun at the party.
_____ 2. Roller coasters are my favorite ride my sister however has never enjoyed them.
_____ 3. Sunscreen is a necessity for a long day in the sun sunglasses and a hat are also necessary.
_____ 4. You probably need to take some practice to learn how to deal with clients .
_____ 5 We can rent a canoe at the city park it is a good place to begin.
_____ 6 Like David Fernandez also finished in second place in the 1998 New York City Marathon.
_____ 7 First we'll set up the tent then can go on a hike.
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Types of Sentences
1- Subject and Predicate
A sentence is a group of words (subject /verb /adjective /adverb). A sentence consists of two basic parts: subject
and predicate . The subject tells whom or what the sentence is about . The predicate tells something about the
subject.
Subject
Predicate
(simple subject )
We
laughed a lot at the comedian.
(compound subject ) My head and neck
hurt while I was playing soccer yesterday.
(complete subject )
sat on rooftops or climbed trees .
Waiting to be rescued , people
PRACTICE
1- In each of the following sentences, underline the complete subject once and the simple subject
twice.
Example: These days, American Indian businesses are becoming more diversified.
1. Many American Indian groups have expanded income sources well beyond tourism and art.
2. Some countries have developed by expending businesses on tourism .
3. Rich students’ parents started providing support services to the school .
4. To work with some social organizations , many people cooperated and set up assistance offices.
2- In each of the following sentences, underline the parts of the compound subject.
Example Did either a mountain lion or a bear make that sound?
1. Increased salary and additional benefits are the results of negotiations.
2. Will Mark or Sarah pick you up at the bus stop?
3. There are many charts and graphs in your presentation . That’s amazing.
4. Trains, buses, and the subways make up the mass-transit system here.
5. Neither swimming nor boating is possible at the site of this unhygienic lake.
*** *** ***
2- Types of sentences
A sentence expresses a complete thought . In English , there are four kinds of sentences : simple sentences ,
compound sentences, complex sentences , and compound-complex sentence.
1- Simple Sentences
A simple sentence has one subject and one verb; it is one independent clause.
Example : He went to the mall yesterday.
2-Compound Sentence
It is composed of two simple sentences joined together by a comma or a coordinating conjunction ( and,
but , so, or ,…). A compound sentence consists of two independent clauses ( clause or a sentence that
expresses a complete thought and can stand by itself as it consists of a subject and a predicate )
Example: He went to the mall yesterday, and bought a nice video camera .
3- Complex Sentence
A complex sentence is a connection of a dependent clause to an independent clause in order to make a
complete sentence . A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause or
subordinate clause (a sentence that doesn’t express a complete thought and can not stand by itself; it is
introduced by a subordinating conjunction , such as after, before, although, because , if ,since, so that, unless, while..).
Example: Because he was off duty yesterday , he went to the mall .
4- Compound-Complex Sentence
A complex-compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent
clause or subordinate clause. Example: Before the quiz yesterday , I was nervous ; so, I reviewed the lessons
again.
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PRACTICE
1- Classify each of the following sentences according to their structure by writing on line before the
sentence S for simple sentence, CD for compound sentence , CX for complex sentence
Example
CD-CX Of all the holidays, I like New Year's Day best ; however, I seldom see all the football games that I want to
watch.
____________ 1. Anyone who is a club member may attend the annual banquet.
____________ 2. When the show was over, the players returned to the stage, and we all applauded.
____________ 3. After the storm, the river raised at fifteen feet above flood stage.
____________ 4. Aren't people who are optimistic usually cheerful?
____________ 5. Reserve your seats now, and then pay for the tickets tomorrow.
____________ 6. The driver braked so suddenly that the car behind ours was forced to turn sharply.
____________ 7. We campaigned as hard as we could; nevertheless, our candidate lost.
____________ 8. From our dining room, we could enjoy a perfect view of the sunset.
____________ 9. You must abide by the terms of the contract, or you will lose your job.
____________10. Until you have the car's oil changed, you may not drive it.
*** *** ***
3- Complete sentence & Sentence Fragments
A sentence is a word group that contains a subject and a verb and that expresses a complete thought. If it doesn’t
contain a subject or mainly a verb, it is only a fragment.
Sentence Fragments : The window in the kitchen.
Complete Sentence : The window in the kitchen could not be opened.
PRACTICE
1-Decide whether the following groups of words are sentence fragments or complete sentences. On
the lines provided, write F for fragment or S for sentence.
Example
F
Looking for a pen so I can finish writing my report.
_____ 1. Our school soccer club won the championship .
_____ 2. A plant thought by some to have great healing powers.
_____ 3. How many pages of the article in the magazine?
_____ 4. Wearing his scuba diving uniform, Khalid posed for his club picture.
_____ 5. As my grandmother observes the weather.
_____ 6. Especially being upside-down.
_____ 7. At the water park near the museum , giant water slides and a wave pool.
2- From each set of the sentences below, make a compound sentence or a simple sentence . Use the
coordinating conjunctions and, but, or, or so to join the sentences. Punctuate appropriately.
1. He thought about taking a big box. He finally chose a small one.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. He went home. He and his wife opened the box.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. The box was full of gold coins. They were very surprised and pleased.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. A greedy neighbor heard about their good fortune. He quickly made plans to visit the same hole.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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Hints on how to improve expressions
1- Transitional Signals ( Sentence Connectors + Coordinating & Subordinating Conjunctions)
Transitional signals are words and phrases that connect the idea in one sentence with the idea in another
sentence. Transitional signals include sentence connectors , such as first ,second , however , in brief … and coordinating
conjunctions , such as and , or , so and subordinating conjunctions, such as because, now that, since , although … The
importance of transitional signals in a paragraph lies in making the various parts of a paragraph stick together into
a single entity . Moreover, they remind the reader of what preceded and signal what is to follow ; so the reader
doesn’t have problems understanding the writer’s ideas. When used effectively, transitional signals make the
difference between an easy-to -understand paragraph and the one which is difficult to follow . Without transitional
signals , writing becomes choppy or broken up and awkward or uncoordinated. Therefore, to keep the paragraph
coherent ( logically consistent in terms of ideas), transitional signals are obligatory.
The following is a chart of some common transitional signals
Usage
Sentence Connectors
1- To list ideas in time order
or order of importance
First (Second, etc.)
First of all ,
Then,
Next,
After that,
Finally,
2- To add another idea
Furthermore,
Also,
In addition,
Moreover,
Besides,
3- To add an opposite idea
4- To add a similar idea
5- To give an example
On the other hand,
However,
Conversely ,
Nevertheless ,
And yet,
Similarly,
Likewise,
Equally,
8- To add a conclusion
and
as well as
Conjunctions:
Coordinating
Subordinating
but
although, even though
even if, despite, in spite of
Conjunctions: Coordinating
and
For example,
For instance,
Mainly ,
Particularly,
6- To give a cause / reason
7- To give an effect /result
Conjunctions: Coordinating
Therefore,
Consequently,
As a result,
Hence,
Then,
Conjunctions:
Coordinating
Subordinating
for
because , since, as
Conjunctions: Coordinating
So
In brief,
In short,
In the end,
All in all,
All things considered,
To sum up,
Eventually,
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Sample :
The following paragraph doesn’t contain transitional signals to bring out the relationship between its
ideas. The sentences in this paragraph are arranged in a logical order, but the paragraph lacks signals
which would help the reader see the relationship between the ideas.
(1) Owners or drivers of automobiles have to know the traffic laws concerning accidents. (2) Anyone involved
in an accident must remain at the scene until the police arrive. (3) The drivers should exchange names, addresses,
and registration information. (4) If the police are not present, someone should phone them as soon as possible. (5)
If an officer is present, the drivers can supply the necessary information at the scene of the accident. (6) Accidents
result in a great deal of damage and or personal injury. (7) If there is damage to one of the cars in excess of $250
but no injury , the driver of that car must file a written report with the Department of Motor Vehicles within thirty
days. (8) If there is also personal injury, both drivers have to file a report within five days. (9) People forget to file
reports in the required time, and the result may be a severe fine. (10) It is important to know state laws concerning
the responsibilities of drivers involved in accidents.
Unlike the first version, the paragraph below is easy to follow because transitional words and phrases are
used and this provide the reader with signals to relate the sentences to each other.
(1) Owners or drivers of automobiles have to know the traffic laws concerning accidents. (2) For example,
anyone involved in an accident must remain at the scene until the police arrive. (3) In addition, the drivers should
exchange names, addresses, and registration information. (4) Furthermore ,if the police are not present, someone
should phone them as soon as possible. (5) But if an officer is present, the drivers can supply the necessary
information at the scene of the accident. (6) Mainly, accidents result in a great deal of damage or personal injury.
(7) Besides ,if there is damage to one of the cars in excess of $250 but no injury, the driver of that car must file a
written report with the Department of Motor Vehicles within thirty days.(8) If there is also personal injury, both
drivers have to file a report within five days. (9) As people often forget to file reports in the required time, the
result may be a severe fine.(10) Therefore, it is important to know state laws concerning the responsibilities of
drivers involved in accidents.
PRACTICE
1- Fill in the gaps in this letter with suitable sentence connectors .
Dear Sir ,
Further to my letter of 16.3.2005, I would very much like to give you more information concerning
my qualifications and experience .
……………………………holding
a Diploma in Catering , I also have an
Advanced Certificate in Office Management .The course covered the usual areas : finance , credit , sales
and human resources. I also wish to point out that
………………………………these
been experiencing the office administration for five years .
qualifications , I have now
………………………………,
I hope you will give my
application due consideration .
I Look forward to receiving a favorable reply .
My best wishes
Abdullah Noor
8
2-Rewrite the sentences using the words or phrases in parentheses .
1. Physical labor can exhaust the body very quickly. Excessive study can rapidly reduce mental powers too.(equally)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. My cousin turned up and some schoolmates of his came with him. (along with)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. He owns a big chemical factory and he runs a successful oil business . (as well as)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. I'm their scientific adviser and act as a consultant to the managing director. (in addition to ………, I also …. )
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3- Correct the mistakes in the use of addition words and phrases in these sentences.
1. I work part-time , I am a student, so I have a busy life.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Besides to have a good job, my ambition is to meet someone nice to share my life with.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. In addition has a degree, she also has a diploma.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Likewise my father won't agree, my mother is sure to find something to object to.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. He has to first consider the organization, its finance system then .
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4- From the list of transitional signals , select one which best fits each blank in the following paragraphs.
Do not use the same transitional word more than once in any paragraph.
A. Students are motivated to learn if they are allowed to be successful . …………………………………their progress is
small , each step helps to develop their self-confidence …………………………if an international student has mastered
a difficult grammatical point or can use a new word correctly , it will help to develop his self-confidence and
self-respect.
B. Once you have set foot on Ireland's soil, you will never want to leave it . As a land of many interesting
characteristics, Ireland has as its most striking quality a beautiful countryside . It contains ………………………………;
magnificent , flat-top mountain called Ben Bella, that hovers over the landscape.……………………………the mountain
there is rock-ribbed hills where for centuries flocks of sheep have grazed. …………………………………Lining these
hills are rock fences, originally constructed as boundaries by farmers who cleared the rocks from their harvest
lands . ………………………, the traveler who loves natural beauty cannot visit a lovelier country than Ireland.
C. One of the most useful techniques in the sport of body building is called supersetting. To understand
supersetting, one must understand that weightlifting a set is the completion of a specified number of repetitions
of an exercise . Supersetting …………………………………is the practice of combining sets of exercises for muscles
located on opposite sides of the body , one would do a set of an exercise for the muscle on the front of the arm,
the bicep, and proceed immediately to a set of exercises for the muscle located on the back of the arm, the
tricep. Supersetting is valuable because it saves time. One can work two body parts in the time it would normally
take to work one. ……………………… , supersetting promotes cardiovascular fitness by placing a greater demand on
the heart and lungs. …………………………………the advantage of supersetting is the sense of both stimulation and
relaxation experienced when a part of a body is fully exercised .
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2-Relative Pronouns for a good sentence structure
Here are some relative pronouns that you always need to try to employ either in your paragraph or essay to make
it effective and impressive :
Where : is used for a place , location and area.
Last week ,I attended the company’s annual meeting. I met an interesting person at the meeting.
Last week, I attended the company’s annual meeting where I met an interesting person.
Who/ that : are used only for a person/people.
A young man is sitting in a café drinking tea. The young man is our biology teacher.
The young man who is sitting in a café drinking tea is our biology teacher.
Who vs. Whom
Who is always used with a subject. ( nominative case)
Whom : is used only for a person .Who is used when it is the object of the verb in a relative clause (objective case )
The relative pronoun whom can also be used with a preposition ( to whom , from whom, with whom …).
Who is always used with a subject. , but it can be used like whom with a preposition. The only difference is
that with who the preposition is placed at the end of the clause, sentence or question.
Yesterday, I visited in the clinic a friend of mine. I have not seen a friend of mine for a long time
Yesterday, I visited in the clinic a friend of mine whom I have not seen for a long time.
The woman with whom he fell in love died a couple of weeks ago.
The woman who he fell in love with died a couple of weeks ago.
Who did he fall in love with?
Which / that : are used for only an inanimate object , thing and animal
I bought an alarm clock as a gift for my brother’s birthday . I lost the alarm clock on the bus.
I lost on the bus the alarm clock which/ that I bought for my brother’s birthday .
Whose : is used for possession
A middle-aged man went to the police station . The middle-aged man’s car was stolen.
The middle-aged man whose car was stolen went to the police station.
PRACTICE
1- In every space, write the suitable pronoun to complete each sentence.
1. Mr. Green is the man ………………………I was talking about.
2. He is the classmate ………………………sits next to me in class.
3. The hat ………………………Tom is wearing is unusual.
4. Hunger and poverty are worldwide problems to ………………………solutions must be found.
5. People ………………………fear flying avoid traveling by plane.
6. That’s the man ………………………son won $1000.
7. Alex bought a bicycle ………………………is specially designed for long-distance racing.
8. I read about the woman ………………………makes old-fashioned clocks for a living.
9. The subject ………………………I like the most is English.
10. Louise, tell us about the movie ………………………you saw last night.
11. The topic about ………………………the lecturer spoke yesterday was interesting.
12. The person to ………………………Ann spoke could not answer her question.
2-Combine these sentences, using all possible forms.
Example :
Louis knows the employee . The employee helped us at the airport.
Louis knows the employee who/that helped us at the airport .
1-The chair is an antique. Sally inherited it from her grandmother.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2- The man finished the job in four days. I hired him to paint my house.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……
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3- The architect is brilliant. Mario works with him.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…….…
4- I took a picture of the rainbow. It appeared in the sky after the rainfall .
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
5- The people were very hospitable. We visited their home.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………
3- Make one sentence from two. Use the sentence in parentheses to make a relative clause.
1 Ann is very friendly. (She lives next door.)
........................................................................................................................……………………………………………………….........................................................
2 We stayed at the Grand Hotel. (Ann recommended it to us.)
..............................................................................................................................………………………………………………………..................................….............
3 We went to Sandra's party. (We enjoyed it very much.)
......................................................................................................................………………………………………………………..........................................................
4 I went to see the doctor. (He told me to rest for a few days.)
....................................................................................................................................................…............................
5 John is one of my closest friends. (I have known him for a very long time.)
...........................................................................................................................................................….......…...........
6 Sheila is away from home a lot. (Her job involves a lot of traveling.)
......................................................................................................................................…………………………………………………….......................…...................
7 The new stadium will be opened next month. (It can hold 90,000 people.)
.......................................................................................................................................……………………………………………………..............………..................
8 We often go to visit our friends in Bristol. (It is only 30 miles away.)
...............................................................................................................................................................………………………………………………………..................
9 Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland. (My brother lives there.)
............................................................................................................................................................….....…............
4- Read the information. Complete the sentences using relative pronouns. Use commas where necessary.
1 There's a woman living next door. She's a doctor.
The woman ............................................................................................................................................................
2 I have a brother called Jim. He lives in London. He's a doctor.
My brother Jim ..................................................................................................................................……….....
3 There was a strike at the car factory. It lasted ten days. It is now over.
The strike at the car factory ...................................................................……………………………………….......................................................
4 I was looking for a book this morning. I've found it now.
I've found ............................…………………………………………………................................................................ ..................................................….........
11
5 London was once the largest city in the world, but the population is now falling.
The population of London .. ...................…………………………………………........................................... ... .................. ....................................
6 A job was advertised. A lot of people applied for it. Few of them had the necessary qualifications.
Few of ..................................................................................................................………………….......................
Usage: Logic in Writing :
Some Common Errors
3-1- Subject-Verb Agreement
A verb should agree in number with its subject . Singular subjects take singular verbs and plural subjects take
plural verbs . The confusing cases in relation to subject-verb agreement are listed below:
a)- Two or more subjects connected by a conjunction and require a plural verb .
My brother , sister and cousin live in Riyadh
b)- Every and each are always followed by singular nouns even if there are two or more nouns connected by and
Every man , woman and child needs care .
c)- A gerund used as the subject of the sentence requires a singular verb .
Growing flowers is the favorite hobby of Karen and Linda .
d)- One of , each of / every one of / none of are followed by plural nouns , but we always use singular verbs .
One of my friends is here. / every one of my friends is here.
Each one of my friends is here.
None of the boys is here
e)- The number vs. A number
The number is always followed by plural noun and singular verb : The number of students is 20
A number is always followed by plural noun and plural verb : A number of = many
A number of employees are absent today .
f)- Expressions of time , money and distance usually require a singular verb
Two hours is not enough to prepare this report.
Fifty dollars is too much for this shirt .
Two hundred miles is very hard to run daily .
g)- People , police and cattle are plural nouns without -s , so they require plural verbs
The police have arrived immediately.
The people are not pleased with the performance of the government .
PRACTICE
1-Underline the correct verb, singular or plural, for each subject.
1. There is, are a cup on the table.
2. There is, are some cups on the table.
3. Why isn't, aren't there any windows in the classroom?
4. Why isn't, aren't there any chalk for the chalkboard?
5. States is, are political units.
6. The United States is, are in North America.
7. The news in that newspaper is, are biased.
8. Economics is, are an important area of study.
9. Diabetes is, are an illness.
10. 100 meters isn't, aren't a long distance to travel by car.
11. Five minutes isn't, aren't too long to wait.
12. Six and four is, are ten.
13. People here is, are very interesting.
14. English is, are a common language.
15. The English is, are friendly people.
16. The elderly in my country is, are given free medical care.
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2- Underline the correct verb for each sentence.
1. Nearly 40 percent of the people in our town never votes, vote in local elections.
2-A number of students has, have participated in intensive language programs abroad.
3.The number of students who knew the answer to the last question on the exam was, were very low.
4. Every one of the boys and girls in the school knows, know what to do if the fire alarm rings.
5. Isn't, Aren't Portuguese spoken in Brazil?
6. A lot of Brazilians speaks and understands, speak and understand Spanish.
7- Why is, are the police standing over there?
8- Why does, do most of the television stations broadcast news at the same hour?
9. Some of the most important books for my report is, are not available in the school library.
10 Not one of the women in my office has, have received a promotion over the past two years.
11
12
13.
14.
15.
All of the promotions has, have gone to men.
The news on the radio and TV stations confirms, confirm that a serious storm is approaching our city.
Geography is, are fascinating.
Mathematics and geography is, are my favorite subjects.
By law, every man, woman, and child is, are guaranteed the right to free speech.
3-2- Pronoun- Antecedent Agreement
Every pronoun ( either subject or object) has an antecedent and agrees with it in number and person . The noun
that a pronoun refers to or substitutes for is called the antecedent of the pronoun .
Example : The player who has won the championship is he and here it is
When you use a pronoun in your writing, be sure that your reader will be able to identify its antecedent
immediately. If your reader has to stop and hunt for a pronoun's antecedent, they lose your train of thought. There
are three types of pronoun-antecedent errors which students usually make :
ambiguous reference, general reference and weak reference.
1- Ambiguous reference : when there are two or more possible antecedents for a pronoun:
Ambiguous reference: Dora wrote to Anna while she was away .
This is unclear because we don’t know who was away, Dora or Anna.
Clear
: While Dora was away , she wrote to Anna.
While Anna was away, Dora wrote to her .
2- General reference : when a pronoun refers to a complete idea rather than to a specific noun or nouns:
General reference : The storm began at noon . That made traveling difficult
Clear
: The storm that began at noon made traveling difficult.
General reference : We went to the movies . It was great .
Clear
: We went to a great movie .
3- Weak reference : When the antecedent is a noun that logically the pronoun cannot replace. The pronoun
refers to an antecedent that has been suggested , but not expressed.
Weak reference : After winning the football game , they gave the coach a gift.
Clear
: After winning the football game, the players gave the coach a gift.
PRACTICE
I. In the following paragraphs, fill in the blanks with the appropriate pronouns.
A.
Human beings are destroying their environment. It is strange how people pollute ………… surroundings and then
go to great pains to clean up the messes …………have made. A cheap method of getting rid of industrial wastes is to
dump …………into rivers or lakes. The result of such intrusions into nature is the death of many forms of life in and
around the waters. Only when the pollution reaches ………… reservoirs, however, do people figure that the time has
come to clean up………environment. Then………create a series of expensive projects to restore the water to ..…original
purity. Of course, the cheapest and most effective way to get clean water is not to pollute ………… in the first place.
13
B.
People who smoke in nonsmoking areas are…….…who irritate me the most.……have absolutely no respect for
……and other people who are sitting around…………In restaurants, for example, ………often invade nonsmoking
sections where nonsmokers have sought refuge from the smoke. Once in the nonsmoking area, these people light
up and smoke secretly ……………cigarettes under the table. The result is, of course, that the smoke still circulates,
and anyone who cannot stand ……………must either wear a gas mask or leave before …………food is served.
2- Rewrite the sentences below to correct any ambiguous or general reference errors.
Example: Ambiguous reference :Mark reminded Glenn that he should leave for the game soon.
Clear :
Mark reminded Glenn to leave for the game .
1. The sky grew dark and the wind picked up. That was scary.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………..
2. The dog pushed the cat out of its bed.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………..
3. Our bank closed early last Friday. This was a problem.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..………..
4. As soon as he arrives, Carlos will give Phil a tennis lesson.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……..
5. Dave explained to John the duties of his new job .
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3- In the sentences below, circle any pronoun with a weak reference. Then, on the line provided, rewrite
the sentence to correct the weak pronoun reference.
Example Weak reference : Rene's report was on the political system and how they influenced other social systems.
Clear: Rene's report was on the political system and its influence on the other social systems
1. Our club agreed to volunteer at the food bank and to help sort them.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. The volcanic eruption was sudden and violent, throwing it across most of the city.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. The space shuttle mission was postponed while they awaited good weather.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4- Stamp and coin collectors often believe that they will increase in value over time.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4- In each sentence below, underline the antecedent of the pronoun in parentheses. Then the pronoun or
pronouns in parentheses that agree with the antecedent.
Example :I know that we need egg ,flour , and butter , but does the recipe also have chocolate in (it, them)?
1. Not one of the students in my class would admit that (he or she, they) needed a tutor.
2. During the fire drill, students are expected to leave (its, their) classrooms in an orderly manner.
3. All the teachers establish (their, his or her) own homework policies.
4. I think that the coupons were returned; did you count (it, them) again?
5. When the band brought home two trophies from the state competition, the school had to make room in the
display case for (it, them).
6. If you want to buy that book, you'll need sixteen dollars and twelve cents; do you have (them, it), or do you
need to borrow some money?
14
7. Both Terrell and Dan are proud that (his, their) fathers are in public service.
8. No one of the neighbors has agreed to pay (his , their) electricity bill .
9. Please ask those women if one of them has forgotten (their, her) coat.
10. One of the boys who was working on the scenery injured (his, their) thumb.
11. Students in Biology II will meet briefly after school to discuss (their, its) field trip.
12. In (its, their) effort to please everyone, the family agreed to spend three days at the beach and two
days in the mountains.
13. Did the United States welcome (its, their) fiftieth state, Hawaii, in 1959 or 1960?
3-3 Adjectives vs. Adverbs
A) Adjectives :
1- An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by telling what kind , which one , how many, or how much. The adjective
is always placed before the noun it modifies.
2-Forming adjectives: We sometimes form an adjective by adding a prefix to a noun or a verb. The following chart
contains the most common English prefixes that are used to form an adjective from a noun:
Prefix
-en
-ful
-ish
-less
-ive
-ic
-able
-ible
-al
-ate
ant / -ent
-ary
-ory
-ous
-y
Meaning
made of
full of
having the qualities of belonging to something or country
not having
having a quality
related to
able to be ; that may cause
that belongs to
relating to
having a quality
having a quality
connected with
having a quality
having a quality
having a quality
Examples
(wooden; golden)
(useful; hopeful)
(childish; boyish, English, Swedish)
(useless ; hopeless)
(active; productive)
(romantic; fantastic)
(enjoyable; objectionable)
(edible ; legible)
(magical ; central)
(affectionate; intimate)
(pleasant; important, dependent;
(monetary; temporary)
(compulsory; contributory)
(poisonous; frivolous)
(dusty; busy)
3- A pronoun sometimes functions as an adjective :
Example :I have another shoe just like this one ( another is an adjective modifying shoe , and this modifies one )
I have another just like this in my apartment ( another and this are just pronouns)
4- Comparative Adjectives :
a) adjective + er + than + a noun ( adjectives with one syllable : smaller , bigger , taller …)
adjective + ier + a noun ( adjectives with one syllable and ending in -y : happier , heavier , busier…)
b) more + adjective + than + a noun ( adjectives with more than one syllable :more expensive , more beautiful ,..)
c ) irregular comparative adjectives :
good
better
bad
worse
far
farther
5- Superlative adjectives :
a) The + adjective + est + a noun ( adjectives with one syllable : the smallest , the biggest , the tallest …)
The + adjective + iest + a noun ( adjectives with one syllable and ending in -y : the happiest, the heaviest , …)
b) The most + adjective (adjectives with more than one syllable : the most expensive , the most beautiful , the most
intelligent..)
c ) irregular superlative adjectives :
good
the best.
bad
the worst.
far
the farthest.
15
5- Adjectives ending in -ing and -ed:
Adjectives + ing : They describe the thing or person that makes you feel a certain way :
exciting , interesting, boring, frightening….
Adjectives + ed: They describe the emotion/ feelings of a person or people that something or someone /people
caused: excited, interested, bored, frightened…
PRACTICE
1-Complete these sentences using an adjective
1 It's too noisy here. Can we go somewhere .................................................
2 This coffee is very weak. I like it a little bit ....................................................
3 The hotel was surprisingly big. I expected it to be ..................................................
4 The hotel was surprisingly cheap. I expected it to be . ...................................................
5 The weather is too cold in this country. I'd like to live somewhere ..................................................
6 My job is sometimes a little boring. I'd like to do something ..................................................
7 I was surprised how easy it was to use the computer. I thought it would be ..................................................
8 Your work isn't very good. I'm sure you can do ..................................................
9 Don't worry. The situation isn't so bad. It could be ..................................................
10 I was surprised we got here so quickly. I expected the journey to take ..................................................
2-Choose the correct word.
1 I was disappointed / disappointing with the film. I had expected it to be better.
2 Are you interesting / interested in football?
3 The football game was quite exciting / excited. I enjoyed it.
4 It's sometimes embarrassing / embarrassed when you have to ask people for money.
5 Do you easily get embarrassing / embarrassed?
6 I had never expected to get the job. I was really amazing / amazed when I was offered it.
7 She has really learnt very fast. She has made astonishing / astonished progress.
8 I didn't find the situation funny. I was not amusing / amused.
9 It was a really terrifying / terrified experience. Afterwards, everybody was so shocking / shocked. .
10 Why do you always look so boring / bored? Is your life really boring / bored?
5- Sequence of Adjectives
We Sometimes use two or more adjectives together. In general , adjectives express either opinion or fact. Opinion
adjectives, such as nice, bad ,beautiful , pretty ,delicious , strange , interesting…. are always placed before fact adjectives,
such as long , short, big , tall, young, old , small , large , cold , hot…. Opinion adjectives are also called describers.
Fact adjectives describe size , age , color , citizenship (origin) and material. So, the correct sequence or order of
adjectives is as follows:
Subject + Verb + Determiner + Adjective(s) + noun +
Subj.
I .You
He.
She. It
We
They.
Louis
Sarah
People
Verb
Determiner
has
had
likes
got
a- an - the
some-any
a pair of
my-yourhis- herthey -that
Opinion
(Describer)
nice
beautiful
expensive
cheap
ugly
sloppy
delicious
great
size
big
small
short
long
large
age
young
old
aged
new
Adjectives
Fact
shape
origin
round American
square British
circle
French
tube
Russian
color
blue
black
red
green
brown
n
n
materialn
plastic
wooden
cotton
silk
linen
leather
NN
NN
NN
shirt
car
house
bag
jacket
16
PRACTICE
1- Check the correct sequence
1 Which is the correct order?




a small Canadian thin lady.
a Canadian small thin lady.
a small thin Canadian lady.
a thin small Canadian lady.
2 Which is the correct order?
a carving steel new knife.
 a new steel carving knife.
 a steel new carving knife.
 a new carving steel knife.
3 Which is the correct order?
 a beautiful blue sailing boat.
 a blue beautiful sailing boat.
 a sailing beautiful blue boat.
 a blue sailing beautiful boat.
4 Which is the correct order?
 an old wooden square table.
 a square wooden old table.
 an old square wooden table.
 a wooden old square table.

2- Choose the correct sequence .
1- Uncle Carl is really …………………… man.
a) an old sweet
b) a sweet old
c) sweet a old
2- Ford is a …………………… car.
a) nice expensive American
b) an American nice expensive
c) nice American expensive
3- They grew up in a……………… house in Mexico City.
a) a small old uncomfortable
b) uncomfortable small old
c) old uncomfortable small
b) Adverbs :
An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb . It answers how , where, when ,how long how much
and to what extent.
Examples: The professor arrives late.
He always drives fast..
She looks very busy today.
Adverbs are used to sum up details in one word; they are also important in writing as they add necessary nuance (
degree, refinement, nicety) to the ideas the writer tries to express, but always check the exact meaning of the
adverb before using it The following is a list of commonly used adverbs.
Degree: extremely, absolutely, completely, exactly, largely, thoroughly, extensively, widely, totally, nearly, hardly,
scarcely, barely.
Degree in reality: apparently, possibly, presumably, reasonably, supposedly, allegedly, virtually, actually.
Frequency: occasionally, usually, generally, always, sometimes, often, rarely, seldom, never, ever, once , twice
Insistence: particularly, especially, specifically.
Relativity: comparatively, relatively, similarly, differently, analogously.
Progression: increasingly, gradually, repeatedly, endlessly, continuously.
Opposition: conversely , contrarily , controversially , antagonistically.
Purpose: purposefully, usefully, uselessly, valuably, eminently.
Certainty :obviously, certainly, undoubtedly, surely, conspicuously, clearly.
Logic: logically, consequently, therefore, irrefutably.
Order: first, firstly, initially, second, secondly,..... finally, ultimately, eventually ,consecutively…,.
Place : everywhere , somewhere, nowhere, above, below, under, around, behind, ahead.
Manner : adjective + ly : slow =slowly , successful= successfully ….
adjective + ily : ( adjectives ending in -y ) : happy = happily , heavy = heavily
comparative adverb : more slowly / less slowly
superlative adjective : the most slowly / the least slowly
17
Irregular adverbs
adjective adverb
good
well
bad
bad ( badly = urgent, seriously )
hard
hard ( hardly = never)
late
late
early
early
fast
fast
Positions of adverbs :
1- Adverbs that modify adjectives or other adverbs are always placed before them .
Examples : The car is expensive (adjective)
The car is very / too expensive (adverb)
The car is far too expensive (adverb)
]
2- Adverbs that modify verbs are always placed after the verbs and objects
Examples : She is typing the letter very slowly
He never drives carefully
PRACTICE
1-Put in good or well.
1 I play tennis but I'm not very .......………………..............
2 Your exam results were very. .......……………….............
3 You did very. .......……………….............in your exams.
4 The weather was very.......………………............. while we were on holiday.
5 I didn't sleep very. .......………………............. last night.
6 How are you? Are you .......……………….............. ?
7 George speaks German very.......……………….............
8 George's German is very.......……………….............
3-Underline the correct modifier (adjective or adverb).
1. The plan sounded ( well, good) but it did not work very (well, good).
2. The books that we had ordered were (slowly, slow) in arriving.
3. I hope Ann feels (good , well) enough today to go to the college.
4. The class was (real, really ) tired after their field hip to the mountains.
5. Nations, like people, can get along ( good, well ) or ( badly, bad) .
6. Everyone who watched the performance said the band had played (bad , badly) in the parade.
7. Are you (surely , sure) about the score?
8. The cheese tasted so ( badly , bad ) that we were sure it had become rancid.
9. Running (slow, slowly ), he couldn’t climb the top of the hill.
4- Are the underlined words right or wrong? Correct the ones that are wrong.
1 I'm tired because I've been working hard. .......……………….……………………………………………………………………………..
2 I tried hardly to remember her name but I couldn't. .....………………………………………………………………………………...
3 This coat is practically unused. I've hardly worn it. .......…………………………………………………………………………………
4 She's a good tennis player. She hits the ball hardly. .......………………..........……………………………………………………………
5 Don't walk so fast, I can't keep up with you. . .......………………..........……………………………………………………………………
3-4 Double Negatives
A double negative is a construction in which two negative words are used to express a single negative idea. A double
negative is confusing and grammatically incorrect . One clause / sentence should contain just one negative.
While composing either a paragraph or essay avoid double negatives.
Negative Words (-)
Any
Anything
Anybody
Anyone
Anywhere
Positive Words (+)
No one , none , nothing , nobody , nowhere
Never
Neither .....……………nor.....………
Can hardly
Barely/ rarely
18
Examples :
Incorrect : I couldn’t do none of the homework assignments . ( nonstandard )
Correct : I couldn’t do any of the homework assignments. ( standard )
Correct : I could do none of the homework assignments.
( standard )
Incorrect : I don’t have no money. ( nonstandard)
Correct : I don’t have any money. ( standard )
Correct : I have no money.
( standard )
Incorrect : I didn’t see nobody ( nonstandard )
Correct : I didn’t see anybody ( standard )
Correct :
Incorrect :
Correct :
Incorrect :
Correct :
I saw nobody / none ( standard )
He doesn’t like neither coffee nor tea.
He likes neither coffee nor tea
He can’t hardly hear you.
He can hardly hear you.
( nonstandard )
( standard )
( nonstandard )
( standard )
Beginning a sentence with an adverb
Some adverbs can be used at the beginning of a sentence , the subject and verb are inverted ( we use the
question word order) , and the adverb is followed by do ( after I , you , we , they and people ) or does ( after he ,
she , it , and a person ).
Example:
We rarely go to movies = Rarely do we go to movies
He seldom sleeps before seven o’clock = Seldom does he sleep before seven o’clock.
PRACTICE
1- Read each sentence below, and decide if it contains a double negative. If the sentence contains a
double negative, write DN for double negative, along with the two negative words, on the line
provided. If the sentence does not contain a double negative, write before the number S for standard.
Example
DN
hadn’t never
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
.......……………
......……………
.......……………
.......……………
Jane hadn't never seen the movie.
1. Since I do not know nothing about woodworking, I took industrial arts.
2. He couldn't barely move after his hard workout.
3. Tim had heard nothing about the film before he saw it.
4. Isn't nobody going to volunteer to go first?
5. Haven't you read any books by Gordon Parks?
6. It is amazing that scarcely anyone has bought tickets to that concert.
7. Taking daily piano lessons doesn't hardly leave me any free time.
8. I knew nothing about that company until I applied for a job.
9. Ms.Chang told me the office wouldn't have any openings this summer.
10. Kelly couldn't hardly understand her new English teacher .
3-5 Misplaced Modifiers
A misplaced modifier is a modifying word , phrase , or clause that seems to modify the wrong word or word group in a
sentence To correct a misplaced modifier, place the modifying word , phrase , or clause as close as possible to the
word you want to modify . Avoid using misplaced modifiers as they cause confusion and ambiguity ( two or more
possible meanings)
Example :
MM 1- High up on the wall I saw a fly( nonstandard. Who was high up on the wall? I or the fly )
C
2- I saw a fly high up on the wall .(standard)
PRACTICE
1- Some of the following sentences contain misplaced modifiers. In those sentences, underline the
modifying clause or phrase that is misplaced and write MM before the number. If a sentence is correct,
write C before the number.
19
Examples
MM
We discussed our trip to a village in the southern area of Saudi Arabia, we always want to visit .
C
Our guide Ali was very helpful during the trip .
.......………… 1. Celia said after her trip ,she would show slides of the village .
.......………… 2. We took a ferry on a nice lake , but I really forgot its name.
.......………… 3. Tourists can stay in guest houses visiting the coast.
.......………… 4. Many years ago the country now called Ghana was known as the Gold Coast.
2- On the lines provided, revise the following sentences to correct misplaced modifiers
Example
Felipe saw a giraffe riding his bike down the road next to the zoo. (MM)
Riding his bike down the road next to the zoo, Felipe saw a giraffe.(C)
1-Exhausted, the ribbon snapped as the winner of the marathon ran through.
......……………….………………………………………………......……………….……………………………………………………………………………..
7. There is a stereo in the store that is on sale.
.......……………….………………………………………………......……………….……………………………………………………………………………..
8. Investigators tested pollution levels equipped with elaborate instruments.
.......……………….………………………………………………......……………….……………………………………………………………………………..
9. Jorge brought a homeless puppy to the movie theater, which was too excited to stay quiet.
.......……………….………………………………………………......……………….……………………………………………………………………………..
*** *** ***
3-6 Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is a modifying word , phrase, or clause that doesn’t sensibly modify any word in a sentence.
To correct a dangling modifier , add or replace words to make the sentence clear . Avoid dangling modifiers.
Dangling modifier : Startled by the shout, the noise made me look around. ( the noise wasn’t startled by the shout;
the speaker was. )
Corrected for clarity : Startled by the noise of the shout , I looked around.
PRACTICE
1- Read each sentence below, and decide whether it has a clear meaning or it contains a dangling
modifier. Before the number write C for clear or DM for dangling modifier.
Examples
C.
1. Running across the field, the dog barked at the kite.
DM 2. Soaked by the heavy rain, it felt good to get inside.
.......……………….…… 1 While jogging along Center Street, an accident occurred.
.......……………….…… 2 Looking out the window, a remarkable sight appeared.
.......……………….……3. Riding smoothly , the driver stopped at the gas station .
.......……………….……4. Wearing heavy clothing, the hike up the mountain was tiring.
.......……………….……5. Alone in the house, Mike jumped at every noise. .
2 Revise each sentence below to correct the dangling modifier.
1 Hot and tired, the pool water felt refreshing.
......……………….………………………………………………......……………….……………………………………………………………………………..
2 Having considered all of the evidence, the defendant was found not guilty.
.......……………….………………………………………………......……………….……………………………………………………………………………..
20
3 Kicking a soccer ball every day, the pain in his left knee grew worse.
.......……………….………………………………………………......……………….……………………………………………………………………………..
4 Opening my umbrella, the rain stopped almost immediately.
.......……………….………………………………………………......……………….……………………………………………………………………………..
5. Slowly approaching the intersection, the traffic signal changed from yellow to red.
......……………….………………………………………………......……………….……………………………………………………………………………..
Paragraph Writing
1- Brainstorming
One of the most effective way of starting to compose a good and well organized paragraph or essay with
appropriate words and nice ideas is brainstorming . Brainstorming is a listing of specific ideas that should
support the general statement . It is usually done rapidly for a specified time as a way of gathering thoughts about
a subject . While brainstorming you write sentences or just phrases in an effort to focus more specifically on the
subject , but you don’t have to criticize and correct ideas and words : your attention is to be fully focused on the
parts and subparts of the subject. When your time is over and you enlisted enough ideas , you can then read over
your list and eliminate or rearrange your ideas .
Guidelines for Generating Ideas
o
o
o
o
o
Concentrate and avoid anything that distracts and interrupts you.
Write down the ideas which will be the focus of your paragraph or essay .
Take a few minutes to sit and think freely ;write down any idea that strikes your mind.
Never belittle your ideas and don’t be selective while brainstorming.
While brainstorming, forget about grammatical, punctuation and spelling mistakes .
PRACTICE
1- Choose one of the following general topics and list your feelings and thoughts about it.
Do not attempt to organize ,but try to free- associate for ten minutes. Write as many sentences
as you could about your feelings and thoughts.
1-Parents
2-Cars
3-Music
4-Computers
5-Summertime
6-Happiness
2- Memory can be one of your richest sources for writing . You may see someone who reminds you of a
person in your past ; you may see a young boy playing basketball and may remind you of your first
game . Use your memory as your source to make your associations with one of the following general
topics :
1- A special childhood friend.
2- Your first night away from home.
3- Your first date.
4-Your first interview.
21
2- Structuring a Paragraph
2-1 Topic Sentence
The topic sentence is the most general statement of the paragraph. It is the key sentence because it names
the subject and the controlling idea: the writer's main idea, opinion, or feeling about that topic. The topic
sentence usually comes at the beginning of a paragraph. You should write your topic sentence as the first
sentence of your paragraph for two reasons. First, it will tell the reader what you are going to say. Second, you
can look back at the topic sentence often as you write the supporting sentences. It will help you stay on the
subject as you write. The topic sentence is a complete sentence. It has three parts: a subject, a verb, and a
controlling idea. Determining the subject of a topic sentence is a process of narrowing down an idea from
general to specific. The topic sentence of your paragraph must have a controlling idea . The controlling idea
is the main point , opinion , or feeling that you have about the subject and it displays what you will write in
your paragraph , it is the general statement . The controlling idea limits the topic by focusing on one aspect of
it and controls the direction that the rest of the paragraph will take .When you’re asked to compose a general
topic, such as college, vacations, or nuclear power, you must narrow it down to a limited topic that can be
discussed in one paragraph. For example, the topic of sports is too general to write about. There are many
specific things about sports, such as professional sports, team or individual sports, or water sports, that you
can discuss. A writer has to narrow down the subject from general to specific .
PRACTICE
1- Study the following pairs of sentences and check the one you think would be a good and clear topic
sentence for a paragraph.
1 a) Snow skiing on the highest mountainsides requires great skill.
b) Snow skiing is fun.
2 a) Exercise is healthful.
b) Jogging is healthful for several reasons.
3 a) Camping is a great outdoor activity.
b) Camping requires a variety of special equipment
4 a) The violence on television can affect children's emotional well being.
b) Watching television is a waste of time.
2- Supply topic sentences for the two following paragraphs. Make sure that each topic sentence
expresses a clear controlling idea.
A
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Home computers can perform tiresome bookkeeping tasks that most families never seem to have time
to do properly. They can balance checkbooks in seconds, pleasing themselves immediately to those of us
who are always overdrawing our accounts. They can easily keep track of family budgets and help in the
filling out of income tax forms .In addition, home computers can provide entertainment for the whole
family. There are ,of course, many computer games on the market that children and adults can enjoy .With
a little study of programming techniques, buyers can learn to program their own games. There are many
other applications for home computers as well. Computers can be programmed to control heating systems,
to function as security systems, or to act as efficient memo pads for important messages and dates.
B
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------One of the signs of depression is a feeling of sadness or helplessness that lasts for more than a few
weeks. Depressed individuals may feel that their problems are hopeless and that no solutions exist for the
difficulties in their lives. Another sign of depression is a continuous feeling of tiredness , especially if
accompanied by difficulties in getting to sleep. People who suffer from serious depression usually complain
of being tired, but they lie awake at night and often experience extended short period of insomnia. In
addition, depressed individuals sometimes have problems in concentrating. Perhaps the most significant
sign of depression, however, is recurring thoughts of suicide. Because depressed people feel dominated by
a sense of hopelessness, they often think that suicide is the only answer to their suffering.
22
2-Organizing Ideas
In a paragraph or essay ideas are organized as follows:
General Statement /Topic Sentence
Supporting Sentences
Restatement of the Topic Sentence
+ further details
2-1 Moving from General to Specific
A paragraph is a group of related sentences or statements that a writer develops about a subject. To compose
an effective paragraph , either expository (exposing ideas) or persuasive ( persuade / convince your reader ) you
need to move from general to specific . The general-to-specific paragraph opens with a general statement and
goes on to support that statement with appropriate examples and details . The general-to-specific paragraph is a
group of sentences that work together to present a single , unified idea or topic . The topic sentence states the
general idea, of the topic. The rest of the sentences support that idea .The first line is indented to signal to the
reader that a new grouping of sentences is beginning . The general-to-specific paragraph is usually built with three
levels of generality : first ,the general opening statement , second , supporting sentences +further details
that elaborate/expand on the supporting sentences ,and third restatement of the topic sentence.
2-2Order your main ideas according to importance
Organizing your ideas ( topic sentences and supporting sentences ) according to their order of importance
means organizing them on the basis of how strongly you wish to emphasize each one. Order of importance is to
present first the least important idea , then the next most important , and so on until you end the paragraph
with the most important idea .This method of ordering ( deductive ) is used more often in professional writing .
PRACTICE
1-Read the paragraph carefully then indicate in the space before each sentence its level of generality. Use
GS (general statement/ topic sentence) . Use numerals (1,2,3) to indicate supporting sentences that are at
the second level of generality, and use letters (a,b,c) to indicate further details .
__ Sunbathing, a popular summer pastime, is considered by many doctors to have several bad effects which
sunbathers should know more about. __ Long exposure to the sun, even on mild days, may cause sunstroke, a
health hazard which many people choose to ignore when pursuing a tan. __Severe burns are another common
condition among sunbathers.__ Although a minor sunburn can be painful, a severe sunburn is a serious illness
and must be treated by a physician.__Dry skin, likewise, is an effect of sunbathing and can produce facial
wrinkles, especially if the sunbather is more than forty years old. __But the most serious effect of excessive
exposure to the sun is the risk of skin cancer. __ Although medical authorities have demonstrated that many
forms of skin cancer are caused by the sun, thousands of Americans risk their health in their foolish desire to
acquire a tan.
2-The first sentence in each group below is the general idea ( topic sentence). The rest are supporting
sentences . Rearrange the supporting sentences according to what you believe to be their order of
importance : from the least important to the most important.
A. Topic Sentence: Instituting a fall semester break at colleges results in many advantages for the students.
1. Students have the opportunity to take a break from the constant pressure of classes and exams.
2. Students catch up on work for classes they are behind in.
3. Students have the opportunity to spend a few days at home with family and friends.
B. Topic Sentence: Salads are beneficial in many ways.
1. Salads are inexpensive to make.
2. Salads offer many health benefits.
3. The salad chef can exercise a great deal of creativity when making salads.
4. Salads contain fewer calories than many other types of food.
C. Topic Sentence: A student studying music often finds it more advantageous to leave the college than to remain.
1. College can't provide the experience a musician needs to be able to play with a professional band.
2. A musician has more difficulty developing important contacts.
3-Not all musicians are judged by what or how many schools they have attended.
23
Sub-Supporting Sentences : Facts & Opinions
It has been mentioned that a topic sentence is supported by supporting sentences which are elaborated or
expanded by further details .What is crucial in terms of sub-supporting sentences is that they contain further
details that are either facts or opinions. A good expanding of the supporting sentences needs careful
differentiation between a fact and opinion . A fact is a statement that can be proven true or verified through
substantial facts . When you give your opinion about a subject , you want your reader to agree with you . So, you
must present reasons for your opinion . One of the ways you present your reasons is to give facts . An opinion ,
however, is a statement that expresses someone’s belief , feelings , idea or judgment about someone or something .
Examples :
Facts :
1- The new building is 1,250 feet tall.
2- The United States of America was discovered in 1492.
Opinions : 1- Your small sister is really a cute girl.
2-Golf makes the best car in the world.
PRACTICE
1- Are the following statements facts or opinions. Write F for facts or O for opinions before the number.
.......………1- People today place their faith in many things besides religion.
.......………2- Many people love ice-skating.
.......………3- George Washington was the president of the United States for two terms.
.......………4- Jewelry serves more purposes than just ornamentation.
.......………5- The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau is one of the documentaries that deal with nature.
.......………6- Calm people make better friends than do talkative people.
.......………7- Michael Jordan is a famous American basketball player.
.......………8- American women are currently obtaining political positions once dominated just by males.
....….……. 9- A slow driver is as dangerous as a speedster .
2- Read carefully the paragraph below and fill in the chart with facts and opinions
Alcoholic beverages should be banned from college campuses for two reasons. The first reason is that
drinking can cause academic failure. If students drink before class or have a hangover from drinking too much
the night before, they will be unable to concentrate on their school work. They may miss classes, fail exams,
and miss term paper deadlines. This behavior could force them to drop out of school. For example, last
semester, my friend Dan, who likes to go to parties , dropped out of school. He failed organic chemistry twice
and barely passed his other classes. As a result, his parents refused to pay for his education any longer.
Recently, Cypress College did a study of student dropouts. Out of ninety cases reported, 65 percent dropped
out because they had failing grades due to excessive drinking. Therefore, it is true that drinking can interfere
with college success.
Facts
Opinions
24
Coherence in Writing
1- What’s Coherence ?
Coherence means "sticking together”. When a paragraph is coherent, the reader can move smoothly from
sentence to sentence without becoming confused or losing the writer’s train of thought. Coherence is achieved
by arranging one’s material in a logical order and providing signals that help the reader understand the
relationships between the ideas in the paragraph. If points are taken up in a disordered sequence, the reader
will find it difficult to follow the writer’s train of thought. Coherence is good connectedness of ideas and is a
quality that distinguishes good writing from that of less able writers.
A paragraph can be made more coherent by ordering its ideas according to basic organizational patterns : time
order, space order, and order of importance.
1-Time order is also referred to as chronological order and means simply that the supporting elements in a
paragraph such as causes, examples are arranged in the order in which they occurred. The supporting
points should consistently follow a chronological sequence .
2-A paragraph is ordered by space if the writer organizes the supporting points in the paragraph according
to spatial pattern or arrangement.
3-Ordering the supports according to their importance is another way to make the paragraph coherent.
Order of importance entails making a list of three topic sentences that develop the general statement,
but it is advisable to order them this way: first the least important, second, the next most important
and third the most important.
4-Using the appropriate transitional signals including sentence connectors ,coordinating and
subordinating conjunctions make the paragraph and essay more coherent by sticking together ideas.
2- Achieving coherence through grammatical consistency
Two types of consistency can be particularly troublesome for beginning writers : shifts in subjects and shifts in
verbs.
2-1 Subject Consistency
The writer who begins writing with the third person plural and then shifts in mid-sentence or mid-paragraph to
the singular or even to the second person ( you ) or first person plural (we) confuses the reader. Mixing the
pronouns in a paragraph usually results in inconvenient shifts in viewpoints which can destroy the coherence of
the paragraph. When writing, the person of the pronouns used should be consistent. Whatever pronoun person
chosen, it should be used consistently throughout the paragraph. If the writer wishes to create a personal tone,
the first- person pronouns I and we are appropriate, for they convey to the reader the feeling that the writer is
speaking about himself or herself. If, on the other hand, the writer prefers to be more detached in their
presentation of ideas and facts, using the third-person pronoun (he,she) is advisable because they create distance
between the writer and the reader and mean that the writer is more objective. Expository paragraphs are always
written in the third-person pronoun . The pronoun you is used less frequently .Overall, you is an indefinite and
general pronoun. Change you to one because it is too general . In fact, using the pronoun you without a definite
audience causes confusion and creates an informal tone The pronoun you should never be used in writing unless
the writer has a definite audience in mind, or in a paragraph in which the third pronoun is more appropriate.
PRACTICE
1-Make each of the following passages more coherent by improving the subject consistency .
Baseball players are used to dangers that cause a number of injuries each season. Sliding into a pair
of waiting spikes is something every player sometimes has to do. A pitched ball comes in at a speed of
up to 90 miles an hour, and some pitchers have a reputation for being willing to dust back a
threatening batter.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------25
2-2 Verb Consistency
Shifts in tense or voice of verbs which are unneeded by the sense of the passage create confusion. If the
writer begins a paragraph with one tense, this tense should be consistent throughout the paragraph. Shifting in
verb tense makes the paragraph less coherent Therefore, when the writer begins a paragraph in one tense, it is
advisable to stick to the same tense right through the paragraph unless a given context logically requires the
use of a different tense. Furthermore , illogical and unnecessary shifts in verb tense within a paragraph disrupt
the flow of ideas and detract from the paragraph’s coherence.
PRACTICE
2- In the following brief passages improve coherence by making verbs consistent in tense and voice.
1.
The baby was given his finger food by his patient and watchful mother. It is quickly leaned to the
floor by the baby and picked up by the mother. The baby is given food and again it is leaned to the
floor. The game continued with food being given by the mother and being tossed to the floor by the
baby. It is not easy to predict whether the playful war be won by the mother or by the baby.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.
First, the incoming material which had to be catalogued and shelved was spread out on tables by
the librarians. All the necessary information is noted and integrated into existing records, preparatory
to the time when the new material would be offered by the librarians to the public. The task was
accomplished in far less time than had been anticipated by the librarians.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3- Achieving Coherence Through Completeness
Another way of assuring that a paragraph is coherent is to give attention to completeness. Expressing one’s
sequence of thought is necessary to coherence. Writers who leave gaps in their thinking, expecting their
readers to fill in these gaps and find out the meaning which is not expressed, affect coherence in their writing.
To achieve completeness in one’s writing, steps in thinking that are essential to readers should be made clear.
PRACTICE
3- Make the following passages more complete and improve coherence by filling all gaps in the
expression of ideas .
1. Many young women are planning careers which they hope will make them financially independent.
They wish to create their own lives . In the world while, at the same time, making a marriage which will
be emotionally fulfilling, many of them would like to have children, but they realize there are other
options. They seem unaware that their plans might be somewhat threatening to the kind of a young man
they hope to marry.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26
2. There were 203 people in the graduating class. Only 198 were present for commencement. There
were five empty seats in the front row. People tried to determine who was absent by checking the
alphabetical list on the program. This was not very helpful. The spectators had to wait and see which
students did not appear to receive a diploma when their names were called.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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27
From Paragraph to Essay
What ‘s an Essay ?
An essay is a piece of writing that has more than one paragraph. It is divided into three parts: a beginning, a
middle, and an end. The beginning is called the introduction, the middle is called the body, and the end is called
the conclusion. The introduction and the conclusion are usually one paragraph each. The body may have from
one to an unlimited number of paragraphs, but it is better to limit the body of your essay in 3 main paragraphs .
Each paragraph is a separate unit that is marked by indenting the first word from the left-hand margin : leave a
very short space ,but all the other lines in the paragraph start level with the left-hand margin. Every paragraph
should contain 1 topic sentence, 3 or more supporting sentences which if possible should be followed by
sub-supporting sentences or further details. While composing sub-supporting sentences , making a difference
between a fact and opinion is compulsory. A paragraph is developed through different ways , the most important
of them are first comparison and contrast and second is cause and effect. An essay needs a thesis statement which
narrows down the writer’s topic .The thesis statement is what you want to say and it has to be expressed in one
single sentence , and it is your main point , a general statement of your essay’s content . It is important that your
thesis statement is a complete sentence because it must briefly state the topic that will be developed in the body
However , the thesis statement must follow an attention-grabbing introduction . What comes after the thesis
statement are the topic sentences through which the thesis statement will be developed . A typical expository or
persuasive essay is constantly a five-paragraph essay : the Introduction , the body which includes three main topic
sentences that are developed through supporting sentences and sub-supporting sentences . Finally the conclusion .
The following diagram shows that a paragraph and an essay have the same basic plan . The only difference is that
an essay is just longer , but it is composed of paragraphs.
Introductory Paragraph
The essay
The paragraph
Topic Sentence
The Body
(supporting sentences)
Body Paragraphs
(Concluding Sentence)
General Statement
Thesis Statement
Topic Sentence 1
supporting sentences
Concluding Paragraph
Topic Sentence 2
supporting sentences
Topic Sentence 3
supporting sentences
Concluding Sentence
28
A formal essay should be structured as outlined below :
1-The Introductory Paragraph :Attention-grabbing, introduces the thesis statement and the relevant topic
sentences.
2-The Body Paragraph: Develops the thesis statement through topic sentences, supporting sentences, and subsupporting sentences . It is mainly where unity/cohesion, and coherence are judged
A Topic Sentence 1
1- Supporting sentence one
1-1 subsidiary supporting sentence 1
1-2 subsidiary supporting sentence2
2- Supporting sentence two
2-1 subsidiary supporting sentence 1
2-2 subsidiary supporting sentence 2
3- Supporting sentence three
3-1 subsidiary supporting sentence 1
3-2 subsidiary supporting sentence2
B .Topic Sentence 2
1- Supporting sentence one
1-1 subsidiary supporting sentence 1
1-2 subsidiary supporting sentence 2
2- Supporting sentence two
2-1 subsidiary supporting sentence 1
2-2 subsidiary supporting sentence 2
3- Supporting sentence three
3-1 subsidiary supporting sentence 1
3-2 subsidiary supporting sentence 2
C .Topic Sentence 3
1- Supporting sentence one
1-1 subsidiary supporting sentence 1
1-2 subsidiary supporting sentence 2
2- Supporting sentence two
2-1 subsidiary supporting sentence1
2-2 subsidiary supporting sentence2
3- Supporting sentence three
3-1 subsidiary supporting sentence1
3-2 subsidiary supporting sentence2
Coherence
Coherence
Unity / Cohesion
Coherence
3-The Concluding Paragraph:
A brief and general restatement of the thesis statement stated in the introduction.
Composing Introduction & Conclusion
The first and last impression are very important. When we meet someone for the first time we try to project a
positive image and aim at reinforcing this image when we left such a person. Similarly, an introduction and a
conclusion are such important parts of an essay. Respectively , introduction and conclusion provide the first and
last contact you have with your readers . Therefore, it is helpful and effective if you postpone writing introduction
and conclusion till you have written a draft of your essay or when you have completed the body . Often having a
sense of the scope and direction of your easy will assist you in composing a good introduction and conclusion.
1- Introduction
The chief purpose of an introduction is to capture your reader’s attention. The function of the introduction is
to present the purpose and main idea of the essay . The opening paragraph should include the essential details
related to What happened , Where , When , Who was involved and Why did it happen .One of the effective
ways to make your introduction attention-grabbing is to ask a question that will directly involve your reader or to
evoke emotion with a passionate statement.
29
2- Conclusion
Your conclusion is your farewell to your readers. It is your last chance to impress your readers, and make them
remember your ideas .The Conclusion shares some characteristics with the introduction. However, whereas an
introduction leads a reader into an essay , a conclusion leads a reader out of it . Whereas the primary function of
an introduction is to grab the reader’s attention and establish the essay’s main point , that of a conclusion is to
make a reader remember the essay and restate the thesis for the last time . Involve your reader in your essay:
conclude with a provocative question , an exclamatory statement , a passionate request, but try always to avoid
introducing a new point or argument in your conclusion.
How can you restate the thesis statement and the main points without being repetitive ?
Avoid using exactly the same words and form you used in the introduction and topic sentences . Try to give them
a fresh appearance . In brief,compose your conclusion as a summary of the essay , but in a new form.
Revision & Editing
After composing a paragraph or essay revision and editing are necessary Yet, revision doesn’t mean editing or
proofreading .Revision is to add , delete or substitute words , phrases or sentences . Proofreading , however, has
to do with grammatical ,spelling, and punctuation errors.
1- Revision
1- Addition
Adding new information to an essay so as to state more about the topic or when the writer wishes to clarify
something that is already mentioned. New words , phrases, sentences and even paragraphs, then, may be added .
Addition is used particularly when the writer wants to develop their ideas .
2- Deletion
Deletion means removing some ideas from the zero draft ; it is the opposite of addition and requires removing
words , phrases , sentences and paragraphs from the draft. Deleting enables the writer to exert control over the
amount of information contained in the essay .
3- Substitution
It means replacing some information with others in order to say exactly what is intended to be said. Substituting is
a combination of addition and deletion and entails replacing ineffective or undesirable words, phrases , sentences
or whole paragraph with more satisfactory ones .
4- Rearrangement
Rearranging one’s ideas by moving, combining or redistributing . This kind of revision strategy leads to a positive
control over the flow of the essay by way of changing the location of information . When some parts of the essay
are out of place, or when sentences or paragraphs appear where they do not belong to, rearrangement is necessary.
2- Editing or Proofreading
After you have revised your paragraph or essay , the last step is to edit it : to correct every possible error you
may make.
1- Style
a) conciseness
1-Are there places in your paragraph or essay where your ideas could be presented more simply and
economically?
b)Clarity
1-Do your words clearly and precisely communicate your ideas to the reader?
2-Are your sentences clearly constructed with appropriate length and subordination?
c)Variety
1-Do you vary your word choices often enough so that the ideas are not expressed through the same words ?
2-Are your sentences sufficiently varied, with different types of beginnings and structures, so that the reader's
interest is captivated ?
30
2-Usage /Grammar
1. Is every sentence in your paragraph or essay complete ?
2. Have you correctly spelled the forms of your verbs?
3. Do the subjects of your clauses and sentences agree in number with their verbs?
4. Are the pronouns in your paragraphs in the proper case?
5. Do pronouns you have used agree with their antecedents in number and gender?
6. Do your pronouns clearly refer to their antecedents?
7. Have you avoided confusions that can occur between adjectives and adverbs?
8. Have you eliminated any misplaced modifiers?
9- Have you eliminated any dangling modifiers?
3-Punctuation
1. Does every sentence end with a punctuation mark?
2. Have you avoided using run-on sentences ?
3. Are commas and semicolons used correctly?
4. Have you used apostrophes, colons, quotation marks, and hyphens correctly?
5. Have you capitalized names and titles according to standard usage?
6. Have you avoided abbreviations whenever possible?
5. Have you avoided using parentheses and brackets whenever possible?
4-. Spelling
1. Have you tried to avoid using words whose spelling you aren’t familiar with ?
PRACTICE
Revise and proofread the following paragraphs:
1.
There are six ways to reduce one's chances of having a heart attack .one of the most important of this is
too reduce the number of fat and cholesterol in one's diet. For example cooking should be done with sparing
use of fat . also, the number of eggs and whole-milk dairy product can be strictly limitted. Another way to
avoid trouble is to keep fitness . Life expectancy is long for men and women who maintaining a reasonable
weight Dating can be necesary to be sure that they are not putting on extra wait . Others important safeguard
against heart attack is continuous exercises. Persons which have inactive jobs and who do not make some
efforts to get regular exercises will surely have heart attacks then are persons whom jobs don’t have no
physical activity Smoke cause heart attack. The government should stop tobacco because its very dangerous
for health and a lot of people will continue to smoke .People can minimizes the dangers of heart attack by
follow these simple roles for making their heart strongly and healthy
31
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2Trying very hardly to win may be the great mistake a person can make When a person sets their goal
and than concentrate on anything but this goal, you loose the little things in your life. For example a boy
playing in a school football team. He wants to achieve that goal, the most important thing in his life. its
important only to him but the coach and teammates, and his friends and family. But the pressure can come
in a boy who concentrate on anything else but to win at playing football. You forget the fun of the game,
and the good times he can has when doing another activities. Old people do this way in business because
they want only to reach theirs goal , but this is so strong because they can even forget friends and his family ,
just to reach that goal When you set a goal, you should be careful because you may fail in the social life.
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32
Letter Writing
1- Friendly / Personal Letter
These letters are written mainly to friends and relatives . A personal letter is constantly informal in language,
i.e. contractions of words and abbreviations ,and slang are permissible in them. The reasons for writing a friendly
letter are unlimited and differ from one person to another
Layout (design/ arrangement )
1- The writer’s address ( addresser ) should be written usually at the top right-hand corner of the first page.
The address doesn’t contain the addresser’s name .It includes just his or her P.O. Box , the name, of the street
the city and country .Also the phone number and e-mail address may be added to the address.
2- The date on which the letter is written below the address at the top right hand corner .
3- The letter should start with the greeting and mostly this includes the word dear followed by the name of the
addressee ( the receiver of the letter ) : Dear John, Dear Mum and Dad, Dear Mark & Sue . Some other
forms of endearment are used , such as My dearest , My dear friend , My dear Sarah … The comma at the
end of the greeting should be used.
4- The opening paragraph follows the greeting and is often an introduction in which the reason for writing to
the addressee is briefly explained .
5- The body follows the opening paragraph and is the main part of letter as it might even include two or more
paragraphs . The important things are stated in the body .
Conclusion or the end of the letter contains mostly the commonly used closing expressions depending on
the circumstances :
Yours sincerely , Sincerely , Best wishes, Best compliments, Best regards , Regards …. .
6Some other closing expressions are used depending on the circumstances:
(Your loving daughter,) (Your loving son,) (Your fondest nephew ,) (Your loving friend,)
(Your good friend,) or just (Your friend,).
7- Finally the addresser signs his or her name .
Some Useful Expressions :
1- I hope / hope this letter will find you in the best health.
2- I have received your letter dated ….
3- Please convey / pass on my cordial / hearty regards / wishes to…...
4- I wanted to write to you earlier , but I was so busy + verb + ing …….
5- I am so glad / pleased/ delighted to drop this special line to you.
6- I am pretty sorry to hear that / about …….. ( for bad news)
7- I’d very much like to seize this opportunity to convey my best wishes / sincerest good wishes to….
8- I look forward to hearing from you very soon. (please write back to me as soon as possible)
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Personal / Friendly Letter
Specimen / Sample
P.O.Box 312,
Jeddah , 21348 ,
K.S.A
The greeting
Dear Jim,
The addresser’s/sender’s
address (without name)
November 9th , 2005
Date
The addressee’s name
The opening paragraph
I've just received your letter of the 7th and has really made me happy. I enjoy spending
my holidays with you . It will be great to see you again after so long, and wonderful to be by
the sea. It's hard to think it's already almost 2 years since we left college and went out into the
wide world. So much has happened since then; but I'll tell you all about that when we meet.
The body
I note that you have 3 weeks leave in July, and I shall be due at least 2 weeks by then. I
shall speak to my boss first thing on Monday morning and see whether I can add a few more
days, and then book my time away . You won't know, of course, but I've bought myself a
small used car, so I can drive down to you, and perhaps we can explore the area together.
You've no idea how excited I am to meet you .
Conclusion
Please pass my kindest regards to your parents, whom I remember fondly. I hope they are
both well, and I look forward to seeing them again and you, too ,of course, in July.
All the very best ,
Your good friend,
Adam
Addresser’s name
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Condolences
Addresser’s address
Date
Dear Mohammed,
I have just learnt of the death of your beloved mother. I share the grief that you and the
other members of your family are going through at this terrible moment and convey my
heartfelt condolences. She was a pious and an affectionate lady. I pray to the Almighty to
bestow peace to the departed soul and give strength to your family to bear this irreparable
loss.
Please do not hesitate to let me know if I can be of any sort of help to you in this hour
of grief.
Yours affectionately,
Akram
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Reply acknowledging condolence message
(Sender's Address)
(Date)
Dear Akram,
I am deeply overwhelmed and thankful for conveying your sincerest condolences in our recent
grief due to the sad demise of our mother.
Your message has given us courage and strength at this time of sadness .
Sincerely,
Mohammed
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Some useful expressions
1-Best wishes
I convey my sincere wishes/sincerest good wishes for (an event like birthday , marriage …)
I take this opportunity to convey my best wishes to you
I convey my heartiest congratulations to you for
2- Condolences
I offer you my sincere condolences ….
I offer you my heartfelt condolences
If there is anything that I can do to help , please do not hesitate to let me know .
I pray to God to give you the strength at this moment of grief .
I pray to God that his / her soul may rest in peace .
3- Congratulations
Please accept my heartiest congratulations …
May God bless you with many more successes
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2- Business letter
A business letter is written by people in connection to their business, work or those in which they desire to
become engaged ( applying for employment ). Regarding the language of the business letter, it should be more
formal than the personal /friendly letter .In other words , contractions and slang are not permissible and should
be completely avoided . The business letter is laid out (organized) in standard ways.
The features that distinguish a business letter from the personal letter :
1- Letterhead :
Usually a business letter is written in a letterhead particular to a business .That means every business has its
name full address , telephone and fax numbers and e-mal address printed at the top of the sheets of the letter
on which its letters are written. The letterhead may even mention the activities in which the business is engaged .
2-The date :
In a business letter , the date is written or typed at the top right-hand corner below the letterhead . It is also
possible to write or type the date at the top left-hand corner; but the date is obligatory in a business letter.
3-The address of the addressee :
The name and address of the addressee ( the receiver of the letter ) are usually written or typed at the top lefthand corner of the letter .
4-The Subject:
The subject of the letter should be stated in the middle of the letter immediately after the addressee’s address .
Subject is always abbreviated as : Sub.
5-Reference :
A business letter constantly contains a reference and it should be kept without any modification while answering
the letter.
6- The greeting :
It always starts with Dear and what follows it depends on the name and designation of the addressee as
explained below:



If the letter is sent to a person by his or her designation ( the manager ,the principal ) the greeting must
be (Dear Sir,) ( Dear Madam,)
If the letter is sent to an organization and not a person ( The INF Co. , TELT Co. ), the greeting must be
(Dear Sirs,) ( includes male and female)
If a letter is sent to a person by his or her name such as Mr. Mike , Mr. Akram, Mrs. Maria , the greeting
must be (Dear Mr. Mike ,) (Dear Mr. Akram ,) (Dear Mrs. Maria,)
7- The closing expressions or the complimentary close :
The closing expression always starts with the word Yours ,but what follows it depends on the greeting used :




If the greeting is Dear Sir or Dear Madam or Dear Sirs , the closing expression must
be Yours faithfully
If the greeting is the addressee’s family name like Dear Mr. Al Ghamdi , Dear Mrs. Al Ghamdi , the
closing expression should be Yours sincerely
If the greeting is the addressee’s first name , the closing expression must be Yours truly
( Yours sincerely may also be used)
In all the above three circumstances, an alternative closing expression might be Sincerely .
8- The signature and the addresser’s designation :
After the closing expression, the writer of the letter must sign and write his or her name followed by the
position or designation below the signature to ensure to the addressee who the addresser is as the signature
may most of the time be unreadable.
9-The layout
The way in which a business letter is laid out is quite important. It should be indented and justified
1- Indented : the first line in each paragraph starts a few character-spaces in from the left-hand margin ; but
all the other lines in the paragraph start level with the left-hand margin.
2- Justified : each line ends exactly at the right-hand margin. The lines are all flush with the right-hand margin.
3- Block : The paragraph is laid out like a block. It is not indented but justified : all lines start flush at the lefthand margin and they all end flush with the right hand margin.
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Specimen / sample
Your address without name
P.O.Box 1347,
Riyadh 21548,
K.S.A
Telephone: 6897067
Date:
September 28th....
The addressee’s name/ position / address
The Personnel Manager,
Safety Insurance Corporation,
Premium Building,
Riyadh , K.S.A
Subject
Sub.: Applying for a job
The greeting
Dear Sir, …………………..
The opening paragraph: The reason for writing
I would like to apply for the post of junior secretary advertised in today's "Arab News ".
The body paragraph : Your personal profile , educational background, & job history
After leaving school with a Senior Certificate in English, mathematics and three other subjects, I
secured a post as filing clerk with ABC Uptown Distributors. I attended evening classes in office
routine and typewriting at Highlands College, gaining certificates in both. I was promoted to the post of
typist, and then went back to Highlands to learn shorthand, and I have a certificate at 100 w.p.m.
I have acted as temporary secretary during periods of illness and/ or holidays, but no vacancy has arisen
for a permanent secretarial post. I am very keen to secure such a post, and have recently gained a
diploma in private secretarial from Professional Institute .
I am 20, and have been with my present employer for nearly three years now. Although I shall be sorry
to leave, I feel I must do so to progress in my career. Our manager, Mr. Mohamed, knows this. He has
given me a good testimonial about my work and timekeeping.
Conclusion
I look forward to receiving your favorable reply and contacting me for an interview, during which
I can provide you with any further information you may need.
The closing expression
Yours faithfully, ( because you used Dear Sir in the greeting )
Your signature
Your name + designation / occupation
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References
Gene Stanford & Marie N.Smith (1980) , Better Writing , From Paragraph to Essay, Holt , Rinehart & Winston, Inc, FL.
Sheena Gillespic et al (eds.) (1989), The Writer’s Craft , A Process Reader ,2ND ed. Scott, Foresman & Company, NY .
A. Franklin Parks et al (eds.) ( 1991), Structuring Paragraphs , A Guide to Effective Writing ,3rd ed. , St.Martin’s Press , N Y.
Alice Oshima & Ann Hogue ( 1997), Introduction to Academic Writing 2nd ed., Longman .
Holt , Rinehart & Winston (1998), Grammar , Usage & Mechanics : Language Skills Practice , A Harcourt Education Co.,
NY
Michael McCarthy & Felicity O’Dell (2001), English Vocabulary in Use, Upper Intermeidate,2ND ed., CUP.
Cambridge International College (2003), Professional English for Everyday & Business Use , Jersey ,UK.
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