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Emperor Septimius Severus’ Incursion Emperor Septimus Severus (reputedly one of the few black/African Romans in the North). He led the final incursion into the North, 208AD. 1 Hadrian’s Wall reoccupation until Emperor Severus’ incursion Aim: To see what happened between retreating to Hadrian’s Wall and the Severan interlude We need to focus on the third major incursion into Scotland, long after Governor Agricola under the Flavian Emperors and long after Governor Lollius Urbicus under Emperor Antonius Pius had invaded. The third incursion was led by Emperor Septimus Severus in the early years of the third century. The Caledonians had attacked the border and army intervention was organised. A large Roman army marched as far north as Stonehaven but the death of Severus brought this campaign to an end. ‘Peace’ was reached with the tribes and the frontier was secured. However, before we focus on Severus we need to have a look at what happens in between……. Hadrian died in AD 138 and his successor was Antoninus Pius. The new Emperor immediately abandoned the massive frontier of Hadrian’s Wall. Again Roman troops entered Scotland and along the Forth-Clyde isthmus a new frontier, the Antonine Wall, was installed. However the Antonine Wall was only occupied for about 20 years. Certainly in the AD 160s Hadrian's Wall was reoccupied and remained the frontier until the end of Roman Britain. Hadrian's Wall was set back into working order and the forts were occupied again. A lot of repair and rebuilding along the wall can be related to this period. But now there was also a closer supervision north of the boundary. Besides the earlier outpost forts of Birrens, Bewcastle and Netherby there were more bases in Lowland Scotland. Risingham and High Rochester along Dere Street remained occupied after the abandonment of Antonine Wall and even Newstead, pretty far north from Hadrian's Wall, remained occupied. Together with the minor fort at Cappuck there were about 7 Roman forts in Lowland Scotland. In AD 161 Marcus Aurelius became emperor and again the biographer mentioned a difficult situation in Britain. At that time Hadrian's Wall was certainly recommissioned. The forts of Carvoran, Vindolanda and Chesters, for instance, bear inscriptions that mentioned the governor Calpurnius Agricola. This shows that Marcus Aurelius' governor was concerned about Hadrian's Wall and the turf wall was completely changed into stone. During the whole reign of Marcus Aurelius the conditions in Britain were unsettled, there seemed to be threats in the AD 160s and 170s. The emperor Commodus probably fought one of his greatest wars in Scotland. Cassius Dio stated that the Barbarians crossed a Wall. Ulpius Marcellus was sent to the province to deal with that situation and in AD 184 Commodus took the title Britannicus. A coin issue also indicates a victory. Even more trouble was going on in the AD 190s. In AD 192 Commodus was murdered and civil war was going on in the Roman Empire. The governor of Britain Clodius Albinus interfered, trying to reach for the power in Rome. He took the legions from Britain as well as auxiliary forces to fight Septimius Severus in Lugdunum/Lyon. There was presumably only a small military force left in Britain and even Hadrian's Wall might have been abandoned. Regardless, in AD 197 Clodius Albinus lost the battle and Septimius Severus became emperor. 2 Of course there was destruction caused by native forces and the new governor Virius Lupus had difficulties in restoring the province of Britannia. He even had to buy peace from the Maeatae. The province seemed unsettled and Herodian mentioned that the governor needed help from the emperor. In AD 208 Septimius Severus started his campaign in Britain. Severus, in 208, was an old man, very weak and ridden with gout. He was not very well educated & he was renowned for his cruelty and ruthlessness. The Historian Cassius Dio says about him, 'Severus was careful of everything that he desired to accomplish, but careless of what was said about him.’ With his health fading, Severus set out one last time on military campaign. This time it was Britain. The Antonine Wall had never really acted as a perfectly successful barrier to the troublesome barbarians to the north of it. By this time it had in fact been virtually abandoned, leaving the British provinces vulnerable to attack from the north. In AD 208 Severus left for Britain with his two quarrelsome sons. Large military campaigns now drove deep into Scotland but didn't really manage to create any lasting solution to the problem. Severus probably acted with a huge army indicated by large temporary camps (occupying a space up to 66 hectares). At this time the fort at South Shields on the Tyne mouth was converted to a supply base for the campaigning units with more than 22 granaries. With the campaigns to conquer the Caledonian territories not being of any lasting success, Hadrian's Wall instead was reconstructed, this time in stone, to defend the frontier. Alas Severus fell ill at Eburacum (York), where he died at the age of sixty-six (4 February AD 211). Caracalla and Geta (Severus’ sons) immediately finished any campaigns which were still underway, signed a peace treaty and returned to Rome, carrying the ashes of their father to Rome, where they were laid to rest in the Mausoleum of Hadrian. Although the 3rd century was really difficult for the Empire elsewhere, Britain remained fairly peaceful after the Severan campaigns. In the North, Hadrian's Wall was rebuilt. The vallum was no longer in use and vici (civilian settlements) developed and flourished around the forts (Housesteads, Chesters). In the later 3rd century the long peace seemed to have negative impacts on the discipline and morale of the army. Some forts fell into decay and were not rebuilt by the soldiers. By this time the size of army units was already quite small. With Constantius Chlorus arriving in Britain rebuilding and restoration started again (AD 296: Birdoswald) and the army was set back to discipline. At this time the Picts were mentioned for the first time and Constantius died shortly after a victory (AD 306) against this Northern tribe. In the 4th century the northern tribes (the Scots and Picts) caused troubles again. In AD 342 and in AD 360 the situation was restored relatively easily, while in AD 367 a barbarian conspiracy brought major troubles. A combined attack of Picts, Scots, Attacotti, Franks and Saxons disturbed the whole province. Theodosius was sent to Britain and restored the situation. Again Hadrian's Wall became the frontier. But with the decline of the Roman Empire the end of Roman Britain was near. By AD 410 the last official Roman soldiers left the province and in AD 411 Honorius told Romano-British towns that they have to take care for themselves now. 3 Severan campaigns Aim: To overview the Severan Campaigns 208 AD. Severan Campaigns. - Background The barbarians (the tribes of the Maeatae and the Caledonii) from north of the Forth-Clyde line had risen and were causing problems in the British province. Despite being bought off the tribes continued to cause problems causing the Roman governor to write a report that the situation had deteriorated and that either more troops or the presence of the emperor was required. The emperor Septimus Severus mounted a new campaign against the northern Celtic tribes. The Caledonii and Maeatae tried to negotiate peace but were rebuffed. Sources Written from Roman historians Archaeological (forts, etc) Invasion and retreat The Imperial Army was impressive, as seen by the size of the marching camps. A new legionary base was established at Carpow on the Tay. Cramond was refortified and temporary camps established as far north as Stracathro in Angus. The tribes were forced to agree to peace but they lost “not a small part of their territory.” Rebellion by the Maeatae and Caledonii occurred again. Archaeological evidence points to a further invasion by Caracalla, son of Severus as far north as Stonehaven. 4 September 211 the Emperor Septimus Severus died at York. In 211 another peace treaty was agreed with the Caledonii and Maeatae. Caracalla left Britain to consolidate his position in Rome. Post invasion A reasonably peaceful period followed in the 3rd century. Trouble on the continent caused the army in Britain to be depleted. Celtic tribes from the north attacked the wall and the invaders reached Chester. The Pictii were named as invaders in 297 AD. When Roman authority was restored natives in the border area seem to have been recruited as patrols for the army. Commercial centres grew up around forts south of Hadrian’s Wall and markets around oppida such as Traprain Law, revealing regular trade between Roman and Celt. 4 Primary Sources (Roman): the contemporary historians Cassius Dio and Herodian have left a relatively full account of the Severan campaign, albeit from a Roman perspective. Source A Epitome of Cassius Dio LXXV, 5, 4 Since the Caledonians did not remain true to their promises and had made preparations to assist the Maeatae, and since at the time Severus was embroiled in war elsewhere, Lupus was forced to buy peace from the Maeatae for a large sum, and in exchange recovered a few captives. Source B Herodian (3rd C, AD) III, 14, 1 Severus was becoming disturbed by the lifestyle of his sons and their unseemly enthusiasm for public spectacles, when the Governor of Britain sent word to him that the barbarians were in revolt and that they were overcoming the country, looting it and causing widespread havoc. He therefore requested additional forces to protect the place or a visitation by the Emperor. p110, ‘Roman Britain: A Sourcebook’ by S. Ireland © Reprinted by Routledge, 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Source C Herodian III, 14, 3-10 Crossing Ocean Severus set foot in Britain. There he mustered troops from all parts, and having raised a powerful army, he made ready for the war. Alarmed by the unexpected arrival of the Emperor and hearing about the vast force that had been assembled against them, the Britons sent envoys to discuss peace terms and wished to explain away their past misdeeds. Severus, however, wanted to prolong matters so as to avoid a speedy return to Rome and also to secure a victory and title at the Britons’ expense. He therefore dismissed their envoys empty-handed and made ready for the war. In particular he attempted to divide up the marshy areas with causeways (or bridges) so that advancing in safety his troops could effect an easy and rapid passage of these regions and fight from a firm and steady base … Against this background, therefore, Severus got ready everything likely to be of use to the Roman army and to damage or impede the attacks of the barbarians. When it seemed that sufficient preparations for the war had been made, he left Geta, the younger of his sons, in that part of the province under Roman control, to dispense justice and to carry on the civil administration of the empire. To this end he provided him with a council made up of his older friends. Antonius (Caracalla) he took with him and he pressed on against the barbarians. Once the army had crossed the rivers and earthworks on the frontier of the Roman Empire, there were frequent encounters and skirmishes with the enemy in which they were put to flight. However, it was easy for 5 tem to escape and to disappear into the woods and marshes because of their knowledge of the terrain, but all this hampered the Romans and dragged out the war considerably. p111, ‘Roman Britain: A Sourcebook’ by S. Ireland © Reprinted by Routledge, 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Source D Epitome of Cassius Dio LXXVI, 13 Wishing therefore to subdue the whole of Britain, Severus invaded Caledonia, and as he passed through it, he experienced untold difficulties in cutting down the forests, levelling the high ground, filling in the swamps, and bridging the rivers. He fought no battles not did he see any enemy drawn up for battle. Instead they deliberately put sheep and cattle in the Romans’ way for the soldiers to seize, so that they might be lured on further still and thus be worn out. In fact the Romans suffered great hardships because of the water, and any stragglers became a prey to ambush. Thus, unable to go on, they would be killed by their own men so they might not fall into enemy hands. As a result as many as 50,000 died in all. However, Severus did not give up until he neared the furthest point of the island where in particular he observed with great accuracy the change in the sun’s motion and the length of days and nights in both summer and winter. And so, having been conveyed through the whole of enemy territory as it were – for he actually was carried in a covered litter for much of the time on account of his infirmity – he returned to friendly territory once he had forced the Britons to come to terms whereby they ceded a large sector of their land. p112, ‘Roman Britain: A Sourcebook’ by S. Ireland © Reprinted by Routledge, 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Source E Epitome of Cassius Dio LXXVI, 15, 1-2 When the inhabitants of the island rose in rebellion, Severus called together his troops and ordered them to invade their territory and to kill everyone they found, and he quoted these lines: ‘Let no one escape total destruction at our hands, not even the child carried in its mother’s womb, if it be male; let it not escape total destruction’. When this had been done and the Caledonians had joined the Maeatae in revolt, Severus prepared to make war on them in person, and while he was engaged in this he was carried off by illness on the 4 th of February (AD 211) not without a certain amount of help it is said from Antoninus (Caracalla). Before his death he is said to have told his sons the following – I give the actual words spoken without any embellishment: ‘Live in harmony with one another; enrich the soldiers, and ignore everyone else’. p112, ‘Roman Britain: A Sourcebook’ by S. Ireland © Reprinted by Routledge, 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE 6 Source F Epitome of Cassius Dio LXXVII, 1, 1 After this (the death of Severus) Antoninus assumed total control. In theory he ruled jointly with his brother, but in practice he was sole ruler from the start. He made peace with the enemy, withdrew from their territory, and abandoned the forts. p117, ‘Roman Britain: A Sourcebook’ by S. Ireland © Reprinted by Routledge, 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Source G Between 208 and 211 the Emperor Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla conducted two campaigns in Scotland against the Caledonians and the Maeatae. The contemporary historian Cassius Dio records that Severus nearly reached the end of the island. After his father’s death in February 211 Caracalla gave up the Roman conquests, abandoning forts. For these campaigns it is argued three great series of marching camps were constructed, c. 65 hectares (160 acres), 55 hectares (140 acres), 25 hectares (62 acres) in areas respectively, which indicate the line of march followed by Severan armies. They are concentrated in the east, with one unexplained outlier in Dumfriesshire. Excavation has demonstrated that the 55-hectare camp at Ardoch is later than the 25-hectare camp. Thus it is suggested that the series of 25-hectare camps dates to the first campaign and the 55-hectare series to the second. During the campaigns a depot seems to have been established at Cramond on the Forth, while a legionary base was constructed at Carpow on the Tay. Both appear to have been abandoned shortly after 211. p43, Atlas of Scottish History to 1707 Edited by Peter G B McNeill and Hector L MacQueen. 7 Source H The distribution of the few Severan coins found in Scotland, for what it is worth, also emphasises the concentration of army activity in eastern Scotland for with one exception they all lie along Dere Street or on the east coast. Nine coin hoards ending with Commodus or Severus may also point to Roman activity at this time, possibly even the payment of subsidies to the northern tribes, though a variety of reasons could have led to their deposition. Nevertheless the hoards do emphasise Severan activity in this area, not least because following the Falkirk hoard of 1900 coins, collected mainly under Severus but not deposited until twenty years later, there are no more coin hoards in Scotland until the fourth century. p32, The Northern Frontiers of Roman Britain by David J. Breeze TASKS 1. Why did the Roman Empire face trouble in Northern Britain in the 2nd century AD? What evidence is there of this? 2. Considering what you already know about Severus’ aims, in what ways were the Severan campaigns of the early 3rd century AD a success? In what ways were they a failure? 3. Briefly describe the history of Northern Britain until the end of the Roman occupation in 411AD. 4. Make notes on the sources, identifying key points/quotations etc. SOURCE A – Cassius Dio RELEVANT DETAIL Maeatae and Caledonii were uniting to threaten the Northern frontier Roman soldiers had been taken captive Governor Virius Lupus had to “buy peace from the Maeatae for a large sum” 8