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HISTORICAL TIMELINE
1
Timeline for Chapter 4
AD
The ‘five good emperors’
96
Accession of Nerva, who takes an oath that he will not execute any senator.
97
98
99
Nerva adopts Trajan as co-ruler and successor.
Death of Nerva. He is succeeded by Trajan, who is campaigning on the Rhine.
Trajan arrives in Rome, having made preparations along the Danube frontier
for a forthcoming campaign.
Hadrian, first-cousin once removed of Trajan, who is also Hadrian’s guardian,
marries Vibia Sabina, Trajan’s great-niece.
Trajan invades Dacia, which is finally annexed in 106.
Decebalus, Dacian king, capitulates and becomes a client king of Rome.
Death of the poet Martial. New war against Decebalus.
Arabia annexed.
Death of Decebalus and annexation of Dacia.
Trajan’s 123-day triumph.
Correspondence between Pliny, governor of Bithynia, and Trajan about the
Christians.
Dedication of Trajan’s Forum, incorporating Trajan’s Market.
Dedication of Trajan’s Column. Trajan prepares for Parthian campaign.
Trajan conquers Mesopotamia, capturing Babylon and Ctesiphon, capital of
the Parthian empire.
Jewish risings are brutally put down, with the virtual destruction of the Jewish
communities in North Africa, Alexandria and Cyprus.
Death of the historian Tacitus.
Trajan dies in Cilicia on his way home, having left Hadrian in charge of the
armies in the East. Trajan’s widow, Pompeia Plotina, announces that he had
adopted Hadrian, who is hailed emperor by the army in Syria. Roman empire
at its greatest extent.
Four former consuls and senior commanders, all Trajan’s men, are executed
on the orders of the Senate. Hadrian reaches Rome.
Hadrian in Gaul, Upper Germany, Raetia and Noricum.
Hadrian in Lower Germany, Britain (where he begins construction of
Hadrian’s Wall), Gaul and Spain. Suetonius is dismissed from his post as
director of the imperial correspondence for some disrespectful behaviour
relating to the empress Sabina.
Hadrian in North Africa, Crete, Syria and Asia Minor.
Hadrian in western Europe and Greece.
Hadrian in Greece and Sicily, before returning to Rome.
Rebuilding of Pantheon in its present form.
Hadrian in Africa, Athens and Sparta.
Hadrian tours eastern provinces.
Hadrian in Judaea, where he proposes the foundation of Aelia Capitolina on
the site of the old Jerusalem and the building of a temple to Jupiter where the
100
101
102
104
105
106
107
111
112
113
114–116
116
c. 117
117
118
121
122
123
124
125
c. 126
128
129
130
HISTORICAL TIMELINE
2
Temple had stood. Then in Egypt, where Antinous drowns in the Nile;
Hadrian founds Antinoopolis in his memory.
132–135
Second Jewish War, at the end of which Jerusalem is razed and Judaea is
renamed Syria Palaestina, or ‘Palestine’.
126
Death of Sabina. Hadrian adopts Ceionius Commodus as his successor.
138
Death of Commodus. Hadrian adopts Antoninus, consul in 120 and more
recently governor of Asia, whom he causes to adopt Lucius Verus, son of
Commodus, and Marcus Aurelius, Antoninus’ nephew. Death of Hadrian (10
July). Accession of Antoninus.
139
Antoninus persuades the Senate to confirm Hadrian’s deification, for which
act he is granted the surname Pius.
c. 140
Death of the poet Juvenal.
141
Death of Antoninus’ wife, the empress Faustina. She is deified by the Senate;
Antoninus establishes in her honour an alimentary programme for the care of
orphaned girls (the Puellae Faustinianae).
142–143
Building of the Antonine Wall in northern Britain between the Clyde and
Forth estuaries.
145
Marcus Aurelius marries Faustina, daughter of Antoninus.
147
Marcus Aurelius receives imperial powers.
161
Death and deification of Antoninus in his seventy-fifth year, having named as
his successor Marcus Aurelius. Marcus Aurelius accedes as emperor but
insists that Verus rules with him.
161–166
Parthian Wars, successfully conducted by Verus with the help of his generals.
164
Verus marries Lucilla, fourteen-year-old daughter of Marcus Aurelius.
c. 165
Antonine Wall is dismantled.
166
Verus’ army brings back with it the most virulent plague (probably smallpox)
experienced in the empire.
167
Rising of Marcomanni. Barbarian invasions of Danube provinces. Famine and
plague.
169
Marcomanni and Quadi invade Italy and besiege Aquileia. The two emperors
oppose them with an army into which slaves have been enlisted. Death and
deification of Verus. Marcus Aurelius returns to Rome with the body, then
goes back to the northern frontier, where he spends most of his remaining
years.
c. 174–c. 180 Marcus Aurelius composes his Meditations.
176
From Syria, Marcus Aurelius travels to Alexandria and Athens, where he
endows chairs of philosophy. Back in Rome, he celebrates a triumph and
makes his fifteen-year-old son Commodus joint ruler.
177
Pogrom of the Christian community in Lugdunum (Lyon).
178
Further rising of Marcomanni and other tribes.
180
Death of Marcus Aurelius at the age of fifty-nine. Accession of Commodus,
who, having made peace with the northern tribes, enters Rome and holds a
triumph.
The Severan and disintegration of dynastic rule
182
Conspiracy in which the emperor’s sister Lucilla is involved; she is exiled and
then executed. Tigidius Perennis becomes commander of the imperial guard,
in which capacity he effectively runs the state.
HISTORICAL TIMELINE
184
190
192
193
194
195
197
198
202
203
205
208
209
211
212
213
3
Commodus acclaimed as imperator and takes the title Britannicus for victories
by Ulpius Marcellus in northern Britain.
Death of Cleander, whom the people hold responsible for the famine.
Commodus renames the months of the year to correspond with his own names
and titles.
Pertinax, consul for that year, is appointed prefect (chief administrator) of
Rome. Commodus is murdered (31 December), bringing to an end the
Antonine dynasty. Pertinax is acclaimed emperor by the Senate.
Pertinax is assassinated by the imperial guard (28 March), who acclaim Didius
Julianus as emperor. In April, Septimius Severus, governor of Pannonia
Superior, is proclaimed emperor by his legions at Carnuntum. Pescennius
Niger, governor of Syria, is also proclaimed emperor by his troops. Severus
marches on Rome, gaining the support of Clodius by appointing him Caesar
(deputy emperor). As Severus approaches Rome (1 June), he is recognized as
emperor by the Senate. Didius is murdered (2 June). Severus enters Rome (9
June) and disbands the imperial guard, which he replaces with three of his own
legions. Pescennius is defeated and his base of Byzantium is besieged.
Severus defeats Pescennius, campaigns in Mesopotamia, and launches attacks
on eastern tribes.
For his victories in Mesopotamia, Severus dubs himself Parthicus Arabicus
and Parthicus Adiabenicus. He also proclaims himself the son of Marcus
Aurelius and renames his elder son Marcus Aurelius Antonius (later
nicknamed ‘Caracalla’) and makes him Caesar. His wife Julia Domna receives
the title Mater Castrorum (‘Mother of the Camp’). Clodius, put in an
impossible position, crosses into Gaul with his army, who proclaim him
emperor.
Severus defeats Clodius Albinus and departs for a second Parthian war.
Severus captures Ctesiphon, Babylonia’s chief city. He names himself
Parthicus Maximus, promotes Caracalla to Augustus and his younger brother
Geta to Caesar. Mesopotamia, annexed by Trajan, abandoned by Hadrian,
becomes a province again.
Severus holds lavish celebratory games but refuses a triumph. Marriage of
Caracalla to Fulvia Plautilla, daughter of G. Fulvius Plautianus, commander of
the imperial guard, who had held the fort while Severus was away. Severus
and his family leave for a triumphal tour of his native Africa.
Erection of Arch of Severus in the Forum.
Plautianus and others are executed for alleged conspiracy. Caracalla divorces
Plautilla. The lawyer Papinian replaces Plautianus, heralding an Augustan age
of Roman law.
The imperial family leaves for Britain.
Geta is promoted to Augustus, but is left behind while Severus and Caracalla
campaign in Scotland.
Severus dies at York. His family returns to Rome, where Caracalla and Geta
are to be joint emperors.
Caracalla has Geta murdered in his mother’s arms, and instigates wholesale
slaughter of sympathizers and innocent citizens. All free inhabitants of the
empire are now entitled to be Roman citizens.
Caracalla defeats the Alamanni, then campaigns on the Danube frontier and in
Asia Minor.
HISTORICAL TIMELINE
215
217
218
218–228
219
221
222
226
227
229
231–233
234
235
236
4
Caracalla visits Alexandria, where there are riots; the governor of Egypt is
executed along with thousands of young men. He institutes the antoninianus
(worth two denarii but weighing less), which contributes to inflation.
Caracalla, campaigning in the East, is killed near Carrhae by members of his
entourage on the instructions of Macrinus, commander of the imperial guard.
Macrinus’ troops proclaim him emperor. Death of Julia Domna.
Macrinus buys peace with Parthia. Julia Maesa, sister of Julia Domna,
promulgates a story that her fifteen-year-old grandson Bassianus, priest of the
cult of Elagabalus at Emesa, is Caracalla’s son. He is proclaimed emperor by
the troops in Syria. Macrinus is defeated and subsequently executed.
The historian Cassius Dio is successively administrator of Pergamum and then
Smyrna, governor of Africa, and military commander of Dalmatia and then
Upper Pannonia.
Bassianus reaches Rome and takes office as Elagabalus.
Elagabalus adopts his fifteen-year-old cousin Severus Alexander, son of Julia
Maesa’s daughter, Julia Mammaea.
Elagabalus is murdered by soldiers and succeeded by Severus Alexander, who
rules with the help and under the influence of his mother.
The Aqua Alexandrina, the last of Rome’s eleven significant aqueducts, is
operative.
The Sasanid dynasty, having succeeded the Parthians, threatens to overrun all
the former Persian territories in the East.
Cassius Dio is consul, with Severus Alexander, after which he retires to
Bithynia, land of his birth.
Severus Alexander’s eastern campaign restores the status quo in the region.
Trouble on the Rhine. Severus Alexander and his mother go to Mainz to
oversee a response to further threats from the Alamanni.
Assassination of Severus Alexander and his mother. A senior officer,
Maximinus Thrax, becomes emperor on the spot.
Maximinus campaigns successfully across the Rhine and Danube.
Third-century crisis
238
242–243
244
248
249
250
251
Year of six emperors. The Senate declares as emperor Gordian I, governor of
Africa, who includes his son Gordian II in the invitation. Both die after their
forces are attacked by the army commander of Numidia, who supports
Maximinus. The Senate deifies them and selects two replacements, Pupienus
and Balbinus. Maximinus invades Italy but is murdered by his troops. The
imperial guard kills Pupienus and Balbinus and proclaims as emperor Gordian
III, the thirteen-year-old nephew of Gordian II.
Roman victories over Goths and Persians.
Gordian is murdered in Mesopotamia. Philippus ‘the Arabian’, commander of
the imperial guard, becomes emperor and makes peace with the Persians.
Decius, commander in Moesia, proclaimed emperor by his troops.
Celebrations for the thousandth anniversary of Rome’s foundation.
Decius defeats and kills Philippus near Verona.
Widespread persecution of Christians by Decius. Plague rages for fifteen
years.
Invasion of Goths. Decius is killed trying to prevent them returning home.
Trebonianus Gallus, governor of Moesia, declared emperor by the troops.
HISTORICAL TIMELINE
253
255
257
258
259–274
259
260
260–261
268
270
270–273
271
272
273
274
275
276
277–280
280–281
281
5
Aemilius Aemilianus, commander in Moesia, declared emperor by his troops,
as is the elderly Licinius Valerianus (Valerian), who is in Moesia gathering
troops to oppose him. Aemilianus defeats and kills Trebonianus, but is himself
killed by his troops. Valerian reaches Rome and is recognized as emperor
jointly with his son Gallienus.
Further invasions of Goths, as well as Scythians and Alamanni. Persians reach
Antioch.
Edict of Valerian against the Christians. The Alamanni are checked by
Gallienus, and the Goths by his army commander Aurelian. Valerian goes to
the East.
Postumus makes himself ruler of Gaul.
Imperium Galliarum, breakaway state of Gaul, established by Postumus.
Gallienus defeats the Alamanni at Milan and in Gaul. Valerian captured by the
Persians.
First Edict of Toleration for Christians.
Some nine usurpers to the title of emperor come and go in various parts of the
empire.
Postumus and three successors murdered by local troops; the senate of Gaul
appoints Tetricus ruler. Gallienus, having successfully campaigned against the
Goths, is murdered by his own officers in northern Italy. Claudius emerges as
emperor.
Death of Claudius by plague. Aurelian, now commander-in-chief of all Roman
cavalry, is proclaimed emperor by his troops in Sirmium while campaigning
against the Goths, though Claudius’ brother Quintillus has been chosen in
Rome for the office. Aurelian defeats Quintillus and is confirmed as emperor
by the Senate after Quintillus dies in mysterious circumstances. Zenobia,
regent of Palmyra for her young son, occupies Egypt and much of Asia Minor.
Revolt of Zenobia.
Aurelian defeats Vandals and Alamanni, then begins fortifications: Aurelian
Wall in Rome; defences for other cities.
Aurelian abandons Dacia north of the Danube and creates a new province
south of the river, with its capital at Serdica (Sophia). In the East he defeats
Zenobia and captures Palmyra.
In the West Aurelian defeats the Carpi, and in the East he puts down a revolt
in Palmyra, which he destroys.
Aurelian defeats Tetricus, bringing Britain and Gaul back into the empire. He
celebrates his second triumph and makes Sol Invictus the supreme god of the
Roman empire.
Assassination of Aurelian while on his way to fight the Persians. The army
asks the Senate to choose an emperor; after a delay, its members elect Tacitus,
an elderly senator.
Tacitus is killed by his own troops in Cappadocia. Florianus, commander of
the imperial guard, is chosen emperor in Rome, while Probus is proclaimed in
the East. They meet in battle at Tarsus, where Florianus is killed by his own
men. Probus is now sole emperor.
Probus campaigns successfully on the Rhine and the Danube and then moves
to the East, where he restores order in Egypt and undertakes civil engineering
work along the Nile.
Revolts of Proculus and Bonosus in the West, and of Saturninus in the East.
Probus celebrates a triumph and completes the Aurelian Wall.
HISTORICAL TIMELINE
282
283
6
Probus leaves Rome to embark on an invasion of Persia. Carus, commander of
the imperial guard, is proclaimed emperor. Troops sent by Probus defect to
Carus, and Probus is killed by those who are still with him.
Carus subdues the Quadi and Sarmatians but dies en route to fight the
Persians.
Recovery: Diocletian and Constantine
284
285
286
287–290
293
296
c. 297
298
301
303
305
306
307
308
309–310
310
311
312
The empire is shared between Carus’ sons, Carinus and Numerianus. On the
death of Numerianus in mysterious circumstances, Diocles, commander of the
cavalry of the imperial guard and suffect consul in 283, is proclaimed emperor
in his place, and changes his name to Diocletian.
Carinus is killed in battle. Diocletian appoints his Dalmatian colleague
Maximian Caesar, with responsibility for the western empire.
Maximian is promoted to Augustus, with responsibility for the West.
Carausius declares himself ruler of Britain and part of northern Gaul.
Diocletian campaigns on the Danube and in the East.
Galerius and Constantius appointed Caesars, to serve respectively in the
eastern and western halves of the empire. Constantius takes Boulogne, the
headquarters of Carausius, who is murdered and supplanted as ruler of Britain
by his finance officer, Allectus.
Constantius’ troops defeat and kill Allectus, and slaughter his Frankish
mercenaries in London.
Diocletian begins dividing the provinces into smaller units.
Great victories by Galerius over the Persians.
Diocletian’s edict on prices.
Edict against the Christians. Diocletian visits Rome for the only time.
Diocletian abdicates, forcing Maximian to do the same, and retires to his
palace at Split. Galerius and Constantius become Augusti; Maximinus,
nephew and adopted son of Galerius, and Flavius Severus are the new Caesars.
Constantius dies at York while mounting a campaign against the Picts. His son
Constantine is proclaimed Augustus by the troops in Britain. Galerius, having
given the title of Augustus to Severus, appoints Constantine Caesar. In Rome,
Maxentius, son of Maximian, is proclaimed Augustus, but Maximian comes
out of retirement and reclaims his title.
Constantine, now in charge of his father’s former territories of Britain, Gaul
and Spain, is visited by Maximian, who appoints him Augustus and gives him
his daughter Fausta in marriage.
At Carnuntum in Pannonia, Galerius gives the title of Augustus to Valerius
Licinianus Licinius, upon which Maximinus has his troops in the East
proclaim him Augustus.
Galerius recognizes Constantine and Maximinus, who is Galerius’ nephew and
adopted son, as Augusti.
Death of Maximian.
Galerius, Constantine and Licinius issue the Edict of Toleration, ending
persecution of Christians. Death of Galerius. Maximinus drives Licinius out of
Asia.
Vision of Constantine, who attributes his victory over Maxentius at the
Milvian Bridge to the ‘god of the Christians’. With the suicide of Maxentius,
Constantine becomes sole ruler of the western empire.
HISTORICAL TIMELINE
313
315
316
317
322–323
324
325
326
330
332
333
334
335
337
7
Constantine meets Licinius at Milan, and gives him his half-sister Constantia
in marriage. They issue the Edict of Milan, ending persecution of Christians.
In Nicomedia, Licinius issues an edict agreeing with Constantine on religious
freedom. At Adrianople, Licinius defeats Maximinus, who commits suicide.
Death of Diocletian.
Erection of Arch of Constantine.
War against Licinius, who cedes all his European territories except Thrace.
Constantine appoints three new Caesars: his sons Crispus (twelve), with
whose mother he had had a long-term affair, and Constantine (about seven
months), and Licinius’ son Licinius (twenty months).
Victories of Constantine over Sarmatians and Goths.
Licinius is defeated and killed, making Constantine sole ruler of the empire.
Constantine appoints as Caesar his son Constantius.
Council of Nicaea, with Constantine in the chair. Formation of Nicene Creed.
Executions of the empress Fausta, Crispus and Licinius Junior.
Dedication of new capital city, Constantinople.
Great victory over the Goths, 40,000 of whom enter Roman service as allies.
Constantine appoints as Caesar his youngest son Constans.
Victories over the Sarmatians, 300,000 of whom settle within the empire.
Constantine appoints his nephew Flavius Dalmatius Caesar.
Baptism of Constantine, who dies on 22 May. Purge of rivals, including
Dalmatius. Constantine II, Constantius II and Constans recognized as Augusti
(9 September).