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Emperor Septimius Severus’ Incursion
Emperor Septimus Severus (reputedly one of the
few black/African Romans in the North).
He led the final incursion into the North, 208AD.
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Hadrian’s Wall reoccupation until Emperor Severus’ incursion
Aim:

To see what happened between retreating to Hadrian’s Wall and the Severan interlude
We need to focus on the third major incursion into Scotland, long after Governor Agricola under the
Flavian Emperors and long after Governor Lollius Urbicus under Emperor Antonius Pius had invaded.
The third incursion was led by Emperor Septimus Severus in the early years of the third century. The
Caledonians had attacked the border and army intervention was organised. A large Roman army
marched as far north as Stonehaven but the death of Severus brought this campaign to an end.
‘Peace’ was reached with the tribes and the frontier was secured.
However, before we focus on Severus we need to have a look at what happens in between…….
Hadrian died in AD 138 and his successor was Antoninus Pius.
The new Emperor immediately
abandoned the massive frontier of Hadrian’s Wall. Again Roman troops entered Scotland and
along the Forth-Clyde isthmus a new frontier, the Antonine Wall, was installed. However the
Antonine Wall was only occupied for about 20 years. Certainly in the AD 160s Hadrian's Wall was
reoccupied and remained the frontier until the end of Roman Britain.
Hadrian's Wall was set back into working order and the forts were occupied again. A lot of repair
and rebuilding along the wall can be related to this period. But now there was also a closer
supervision north of the boundary. Besides the earlier outpost forts of Birrens, Bewcastle and
Netherby there were more bases in Lowland Scotland. Risingham and High Rochester along Dere
Street remained occupied after the abandonment of Antonine Wall and even Newstead, pretty far
north from Hadrian's Wall, remained occupied. Together with the minor fort at Cappuck there were
about 7 Roman forts in Lowland Scotland.
In AD 161 Marcus Aurelius became emperor and again the biographer mentioned a difficult
situation in Britain. At that time Hadrian's Wall was certainly recommissioned. The forts of Carvoran,
Vindolanda and Chesters, for instance, bear inscriptions that mentioned the governor Calpurnius
Agricola. This shows that Marcus Aurelius' governor was concerned about Hadrian's Wall and the
turf wall was completely changed into stone. During the whole reign of Marcus Aurelius the
conditions in Britain were unsettled, there seemed to be threats in the AD 160s and 170s.
The emperor Commodus probably fought one of his greatest wars in Scotland. Cassius Dio stated
that the Barbarians crossed a Wall. Ulpius Marcellus was sent to the province to deal with that
situation and in AD 184 Commodus took the title Britannicus. A coin issue also indicates a victory.
Even more trouble was going on in the AD 190s. In AD 192 Commodus was murdered and civil war
was going on in the Roman Empire. The governor of Britain Clodius Albinus interfered, trying to
reach for the power in Rome. He took the legions from Britain as well as auxiliary forces to fight
Septimius Severus in Lugdunum/Lyon. There was presumably only a small military force left in Britain
and even Hadrian's Wall might have been abandoned. Regardless, in AD 197 Clodius Albinus lost
the battle and Septimius Severus became emperor.
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Of course there was destruction caused by native forces and the new governor Virius Lupus had
difficulties in restoring the province of Britannia. He even had to buy peace from the Maeatae. The
province seemed unsettled and Herodian mentioned that the governor needed help from the
emperor. In AD 208 Septimius Severus started his campaign in Britain. Severus, in 208, was an old
man, very weak and ridden with gout. He was not very well educated & he was renowned for his
cruelty and ruthlessness. The Historian Cassius Dio says about him, 'Severus was careful of everything
that he desired to accomplish, but careless of what was said about him.’ With his health fading,
Severus set out one last time on military campaign. This time it was Britain. The Antonine Wall had
never really acted as a perfectly successful barrier to the troublesome barbarians to the north of it.
By this time it had in fact been virtually abandoned, leaving the British provinces vulnerable to
attack from the north.
In AD 208 Severus left for Britain with his two quarrelsome sons. Large military campaigns now drove
deep into Scotland but didn't really manage to create any lasting solution to the problem. Severus
probably acted with a huge army indicated by large temporary camps (occupying a space up to
66 hectares). At this time the fort at South Shields on the Tyne mouth was converted to a supply
base for the campaigning units with more than 22 granaries. With the campaigns to conquer the
Caledonian territories not being of any lasting success, Hadrian's Wall instead was reconstructed,
this time in stone, to defend the frontier. Alas Severus fell ill at Eburacum (York), where he died at
the age of sixty-six (4 February AD 211). Caracalla and Geta (Severus’ sons) immediately finished
any campaigns which were still underway, signed a peace treaty and returned to Rome, carrying
the ashes of their father to Rome, where they were laid to rest in the Mausoleum of Hadrian.
Although the 3rd century was really difficult for the Empire elsewhere, Britain remained fairly
peaceful after the Severan campaigns. In the North, Hadrian's Wall was rebuilt. The vallum was no
longer in use and vici (civilian settlements) developed and flourished around the forts (Housesteads,
Chesters). In the later 3rd century the long peace seemed to have negative impacts on the
discipline and morale of the army. Some forts fell into decay and were not rebuilt by the soldiers. By
this time the size of army units was already quite small. With Constantius Chlorus arriving in Britain
rebuilding and restoration started again (AD 296: Birdoswald) and the army was set back to
discipline. At this time the Picts were mentioned for the first time and Constantius died shortly after a
victory (AD 306) against this Northern tribe.
In the 4th century the northern tribes (the Scots and Picts) caused troubles again. In AD 342 and in
AD 360 the situation was restored relatively easily, while in AD 367 a barbarian conspiracy brought
major troubles. A combined attack of Picts, Scots, Attacotti, Franks and Saxons disturbed the whole
province. Theodosius was sent to Britain and restored the situation. Again Hadrian's Wall became
the frontier. But with the decline of the Roman Empire the end of Roman Britain was near. By AD 410
the last official Roman soldiers left the province and in AD 411 Honorius told Romano-British towns
that they have to take care for themselves now.
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Severan campaigns
Aim:

To overview the Severan Campaigns
208 AD. Severan Campaigns. - Background

The barbarians (the tribes of the Maeatae and the Caledonii) from north of the Forth-Clyde
line had risen and were causing problems in the British province.

Despite being bought off the tribes continued to cause problems causing the Roman
governor to write a report that the situation had deteriorated and that either more troops or
the presence of the emperor was required.

The emperor Septimus Severus mounted a new campaign against the northern Celtic tribes.
The Caledonii and Maeatae tried to negotiate peace but were rebuffed.
Sources

Written from Roman historians

Archaeological (forts, etc)
Invasion and retreat

The Imperial Army was impressive, as seen by the size of the marching camps.

A new legionary base was established at Carpow on the Tay. Cramond was refortified and
temporary camps established as far north as Stracathro in Angus.

The tribes were forced to agree to peace but they lost “not a small part of their territory.”
Rebellion by the Maeatae and Caledonii occurred again.

Archaeological evidence points to a further invasion by Caracalla, son of Severus as far
north as Stonehaven.

4 September 211 the Emperor Septimus Severus died at York.

In 211 another peace treaty was agreed with the Caledonii and Maeatae. Caracalla left
Britain to consolidate his position in Rome.
Post invasion

A reasonably peaceful period followed in the 3rd century. Trouble on the continent caused
the army in Britain to be depleted. Celtic tribes from the north attacked the wall and the
invaders reached Chester.

The Pictii were named as invaders in 297 AD. When Roman authority was restored natives in
the border area seem to have been recruited as patrols for the army. Commercial centres
grew up around forts south of Hadrian’s Wall and markets around oppida such as Traprain
Law, revealing regular trade between Roman and Celt.
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Primary Sources (Roman):
the contemporary historians Cassius Dio and Herodian have left a
relatively full account of the Severan campaign, albeit from a Roman perspective.
Source A
Epitome of Cassius Dio LXXV, 5, 4
Since the Caledonians did not remain true to their promises and had made preparations to assist
the Maeatae, and since at the time Severus was embroiled in war elsewhere, Lupus was forced to
buy peace from the Maeatae for a large sum, and in exchange recovered a few captives.
Source B
Herodian (3rd C, AD) III, 14, 1
Severus was becoming disturbed by the lifestyle of his sons and their unseemly enthusiasm for
public spectacles, when the Governor of Britain sent word to him that the barbarians were in revolt
and that they were overcoming the country, looting it and causing widespread havoc.
He
therefore requested additional forces to protect the place or a visitation by the Emperor.
p110, ‘Roman Britain: A Sourcebook’ by S. Ireland © Reprinted by Routledge, 11 New Fetter Lane,
London EC4P 4EE
Source C
Herodian III, 14, 3-10
Crossing Ocean Severus set foot in Britain. There he mustered troops from all parts, and having
raised a powerful army, he made ready for the war. Alarmed by the unexpected arrival of the
Emperor and hearing about the vast force that had been assembled against them, the Britons sent
envoys to discuss peace terms and wished to explain away their past misdeeds. Severus, however,
wanted to prolong matters so as to avoid a speedy return to Rome and also to secure a victory
and title at the Britons’ expense. He therefore dismissed their envoys empty-handed and made
ready for the war. In particular he attempted to divide up the marshy areas with causeways (or
bridges) so that advancing in safety his troops could effect an easy and rapid passage of these
regions and fight from a firm and steady base …
Against this background, therefore, Severus got ready everything likely to be of use to the Roman
army and to damage or impede the attacks of the barbarians. When it seemed that sufficient
preparations for the war had been made, he left Geta, the younger of his sons, in that part of the
province under Roman control, to dispense justice and to carry on the civil administration of the
empire.
To this end he provided him with a council made up of his older friends.
Antonius
(Caracalla) he took with him and he pressed on against the barbarians. Once the army had
crossed the rivers and earthworks on the frontier of the Roman Empire, there were frequent
encounters and skirmishes with the enemy in which they were put to flight. However, it was easy for
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tem to escape and to disappear into the woods and marshes because of their knowledge of the
terrain, but all this hampered the Romans and dragged out the war considerably.
p111, ‘Roman Britain: A Sourcebook’ by S. Ireland © Reprinted by Routledge, 11 New Fetter Lane,
London EC4P 4EE
Source D
Epitome of Cassius Dio LXXVI, 13
Wishing therefore to subdue the whole of Britain, Severus invaded Caledonia, and as he passed
through it, he experienced untold difficulties in cutting down the forests, levelling the high ground,
filling in the swamps, and bridging the rivers. He fought no battles not did he see any enemy drawn
up for battle. Instead they deliberately put sheep and cattle in the Romans’ way for the soldiers to
seize, so that they might be lured on further still and thus be worn out. In fact the Romans suffered
great hardships because of the water, and any stragglers became a prey to ambush. Thus, unable
to go on, they would be killed by their own men so they might not fall into enemy hands. As a result
as many as 50,000 died in all. However, Severus did not give up until he neared the furthest point of
the island where in particular he observed with great accuracy the change in the sun’s motion and
the length of days and nights in both summer and winter. And so, having been conveyed through
the whole of enemy territory as it were – for he actually was carried in a covered litter for much of
the time on account of his infirmity – he returned to friendly territory once he had forced the Britons
to come to terms whereby they ceded a large sector of their land.
p112, ‘Roman Britain: A Sourcebook’ by S. Ireland © Reprinted by Routledge, 11 New Fetter Lane,
London EC4P 4EE
Source E
Epitome of Cassius Dio LXXVI, 15, 1-2
When the inhabitants of the island rose in rebellion, Severus called together his troops and ordered
them to invade their territory and to kill everyone they found, and he quoted these lines: ‘Let no
one escape total destruction at our hands, not even the child carried in its mother’s womb, if it be
male; let it not escape total destruction’. When this had been done and the Caledonians had
joined the Maeatae in revolt, Severus prepared to make war on them in person, and while he was
engaged in this he was carried off by illness on the 4 th of February (AD 211) not without a certain
amount of help it is said from Antoninus (Caracalla). Before his death he is said to have told his
sons the following – I give the actual words spoken without any embellishment: ‘Live in harmony
with one another; enrich the soldiers, and ignore everyone else’.
p112, ‘Roman Britain: A Sourcebook’ by S. Ireland © Reprinted by Routledge, 11 New Fetter Lane,
London EC4P 4EE
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Source F
Epitome of Cassius Dio LXXVII, 1, 1
After this (the death of Severus) Antoninus assumed total control. In theory he ruled jointly with his
brother, but in practice he was sole ruler from the start. He made peace with the enemy, withdrew
from their territory, and abandoned the forts.
p117, ‘Roman Britain: A Sourcebook’ by S. Ireland © Reprinted by Routledge, 11 New Fetter Lane,
London EC4P 4EE
Source G
Between 208 and 211 the Emperor Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla conducted two
campaigns in Scotland against the Caledonians and the Maeatae. The contemporary historian
Cassius Dio records that Severus nearly reached the end of the island. After his father’s death in
February 211 Caracalla gave up the Roman conquests, abandoning forts.
For these campaigns it is argued three great series of marching camps were constructed, c. 65
hectares (160 acres), 55 hectares (140 acres), 25 hectares (62 acres) in areas respectively, which
indicate the line of march followed by Severan armies. They are concentrated in the east, with
one unexplained outlier in Dumfriesshire. Excavation has demonstrated that the 55-hectare camp
at Ardoch is later than the 25-hectare camp. Thus it is suggested that the series of 25-hectare
camps dates to the first campaign and the 55-hectare series to the second.
During the campaigns a depot seems to have been established at Cramond on the Forth, while a
legionary base was constructed at Carpow on the Tay. Both appear to have been abandoned
shortly after 211. p43, Atlas of Scottish History to 1707 Edited by Peter G B McNeill and Hector L MacQueen.
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Source H
The distribution of the few Severan coins found in Scotland, for what it is worth, also emphasises the
concentration of army activity in eastern Scotland for with one exception they all lie along Dere
Street or on the east coast. Nine coin hoards ending with Commodus or Severus may also point to
Roman activity at this time, possibly even the payment of subsidies to the northern tribes, though a
variety of reasons could have led to their deposition.
Nevertheless the hoards do emphasise
Severan activity in this area, not least because following the Falkirk hoard of 1900 coins, collected
mainly under Severus but not deposited until twenty years later, there are no more coin hoards in
Scotland until the fourth century.
p32, The Northern Frontiers of Roman Britain by David J. Breeze
TASKS
1. Why did the Roman Empire face trouble in Northern Britain in the 2nd century
AD? What evidence is there of this?
2. Considering what you already know about Severus’ aims, in what ways were
the Severan campaigns of the early 3rd century AD a success? In what ways
were they a failure?
3. Briefly describe the history of Northern Britain until the end of the Roman
occupation in 411AD.
4. Make notes on the sources, identifying key points/quotations etc.
SOURCE
A – Cassius Dio
RELEVANT DETAIL

Maeatae and Caledonii were uniting to threaten the
Northern frontier

Roman soldiers had been taken captive

Governor Virius Lupus had to “buy peace from the
Maeatae for a large sum”
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