Download Western Civilization I HIS-101

Western Civilization I
HIS-101
Unit 5 - The Roman Republic
Geography of Italy

Three main regions:




Ideal for farming




Po Valley
Latium
Campania
Large fertile plains
More agriculturally productive than Greece
Able to support a larger population
No good natural barriers



Alps to the north had numerous passes
Apennines Mountains were not as high as the Alps
Miles of coastline on three sides
Geography of Italy


Best harbors were located on the western side of Italy
Italy had some mineral resources



People were attracted to Italy


These were enough to attract outsiders
Not enough to provide sufficient wealth to defend the region
But natives could not afford to protect themselves
By first millennium BCE, Italy was inhabited by:



Latin speaking people on the plain of Latium
To the north were the Etruscans
To the south were the Greeks

Italy

(c.500 BCE)
Etruscans

Etruscan settled in the late Bronze Age



Built towns and cities in north-central Italy



Most famous city was Rome
They also built the first roads in the area
By 650 BCE, dominant cultural and economic power in
Italy


Their origins are unclear
Cannot translate Etruscan language yet
They were skilled artisans, metal workers, and architects
Government was a thalassocracy

Their influence spread throughout the western Mediterranean
Etruscans

Women had many rights


By 480 BCE, they were on the decline



They participated in public events including politics and
sporting events
They were challenged by the Greeks in southern Italy
By 400 BCE, they were limited to Etruria
Early Rome was heavily influenced by the Etruscans





Used Etruscan architecture in the building of their cities
Enjoyed gladiatorial combat
Wore the Etruscan style toga and cloak
Latin alphabet was based on the Greek-derived Etruscan one
Adopted Etruscan-modified hoplite warfare

The Etruscans
Greeks in Italy

Greek colonization of Italy (750-550 BCE)



Influenced Rome




Settled in southern Italy and Sicily
They built fortified cities with harbors for trade
Many philosophers resided in Italy at one point
Included Plato, Archimedes, and
Roman religion similar to the Greeks
Rome became the link to Near East

It will develop as the link between Greek and Near East
culture and the rest of Europe

Ancient
Rome
Rise of Rome

Romans settled in Latium around 2nd millennium BCE




Region had many advantages
Fertile, broad, flat plain
Access to the Tiber River
Advantages of Rome:





Located 12 miles inland on the Tiber River
One of the first accessible crossings of the river
On the land path between the Apennines to the sea
Far enough inland to be safe from sea attackers
Built on the Seven Hills
Rise of Rome

“Latin Rights”





A series of rights between all Latin communities
Commercium – All contracts were good throughout Latium
Connubium – Latins could intermarry with legal recognition
Migratio – Latins could migrate and transfer citizenship after
one year
Romulus and Remus




Founded the city according to legen
Sons of Mars
Had been set adrift on the Tiber River as babies and raised by
wolves
Romulus eventually killed Remus and became the sole king of
Rome

Remus and Romulus
Regal Period (753-509 BCE)

Regal Period (753-509 BCE)



Six Etruscan kings




Early Roman government was a monarchy
There was a senate made up of the head of clans
Helped transform Rome into an urban city
Were city planners and organizers
Built walls surrounding the city
Tarquin the Proud (534-509 BCE)



Last Roman king
Took the throne by murdering the previous king
Ruled as an absolute despot and had many senators executed
Regal Period (753-509 BCE)

Rape of Lucretia (510 BCE)







Tarquin’s son raped Lucretia
She was considered to be a “virtuous” Roman wife
She committed suicide rather than “live in dishonor”
Led to overthrow Tarquin
Probably a patriotic myth
Shows Roman hatred of the Etruscan monarchs
Roman never adopted monarchy again

Western Mediterranean (c. 509 BCE)
Roman Republic (509-264 BCE)

Characterized by military expansion and constant warfare






At first they were on the defensive
As time went on they began conquering their neighbors
Newly conquered territories were required to provide soldiers
Many were brought under the “Latin Rights”
Also received many of the same benefits of Roman citizens
Roman government was practical



It evolved with new circumstances
It was a “government on the fly”
Three branches: Imperium, Senate, and Popular Assemblies
Imperium

Imperium






Executive branch
Means “right to command”
Originally was two consuls
With expansion, more positions were added
These included praetors, proconsuls, and propraetors
Consul




Highest position with imperium
Responsible for the overall administration of the government,
military, and religion
Positions limited by election and one year terms
Served in Senate after term ended
Imperium

Praetors




Proconsuls and Propraetors



Added in 366 BCE
Governed Rome when the Consuls were away in battle
Handled civil law of the Republic
Acted as provincial governors
Were former consuls or praetors
Temporary Dictators


In case of an emergency
Only supposed to last for six months
Senate and Popular Assemblies

Senate





Comitia Centuriata (Centuriate Assembly)




Approximately 300 elders
A lifetime appointment
Not a legislative body until 3rd century BCE
Counseled the Imperium
Made up of members of the Roman army
Wealthiest always had the majority
Elected the Consuls and passed laws
Concilium Plebis (Plebian Assembly)


Not added until 471 BCE
More democratic assembly made up only of Plebeians

A Roman with imagines
Roman Society

Paterfamilias






Roman society stressed family
Head of the family
Had complete power over the rest of the family
Many families shared the same name
They would also group together in social units known as clans
Rise of Patronage



In early Rome, not everybody enjoyed the benefits of
citizenship
Thus did not have protection under the law
Would seek protection from a citizen family
Roman Society

Patronage and Clientage






The word “patron” is derived from pater meaning “father”
“Client” is derived from cluere “to obey”
Citizen family would act as the patron and provide aid
Client would provide labor, military assistance, and votes in the
assembly
Roman society was divided into two main classes:
Patricians and Plebeians
Plebeians faced discrimination and unfair treatment


Forced to serve in the army but could not hold office
Patricians and plebeians were not allowed to intermarry

Roman Families and Society
Struggle of the Orders

Struggle of the Orders (494-287 BCE)



Secession from Rome (494 BCE)




Series of struggles by the plebeians to gain more political rights
Started with plebeians acquiring large amounts of wealth
Plebeians seceded from Rome until they received more rights
They made up the military
Patricians were forced to compromise
Tribunes of the Plebes



Started with two
Sacrosanct position
Were able to protect any plebeian from arrest by patrician
magistrates
Struggle of the Orders

Concilium Plebis was added in 474 BCE






Called by the Tribunes
Only plebeians could serve on it
Laws passed only affected the plebeian class
Laws still had to be approved by the Senate
Plebeians unfamiliar with legal proceedings
Decemviri (“ten men”)



Commission to help clarify new legal codes in 452 BCE
They were all members of the patrician class
Published the new legal code for the plebeians
Struggle of the Orders

Twelve Tables of Law (450 BCE)





Lex Canuleia (445 BCE)


New laws maintained the old traditions including debt slavery
Forbade the intermarriage between patricians and plebeians
Many of the plebeians were unhappy with these laws
Pushed for greater reforms and more political equality
Allowed intermarriage between patricians and plebeians
Lex Licinia Sextia (367 BCE)



Allowed one of the two consuls to be a plebeian
Only five plebeians were elected between 366-340 BCE
Ended patrician monopoly over Senate
Struggle of the Orders

Lex Genucia (342 BCE)



Lex Hortensia (287 BCE)




This allowed both consul positions to be held by plebeians
It also required that at least one had to be plebeian
All laws passed by the Concilium Plebis affected both plebeians
and patricians
No longer required the approval of the Senate
Legally, all Roman citizens were now considered equal
Rise of Nobiles


A new elite class made up of the wealthy politicians
Republic never saw complete democracy

Roman Conquest of Italy
Nature of Roman Imperialism

Three stages of Roman imperialism:




Goal was not to conquer





Conquest of Italy
Conflict with Carthage and expansion into western
Mediterranean
Conflict with the Hellenistic kingdoms and expansion into the
eastern Mediterranean
Took advantage of the opportunities given to it
The more it expanded, the more threats
Involvement into even more conflicts
This led to more expansion
Not until the 2nd century BCE began to favor expansion

Increased the glory of Rome and economic benefits
Early Italian Campaigns (458–396 BC)

Roman was surrounded by potential enemies




Peace with Latin communities (493 BCE)



To the north was the Etruscans
To the east and south were various Italian tribes and the
Greeks
Latin communities challenged the city for leadership
Republic made a defensive alliance
Lasted long enough so Rome could focus on Etruscans
Fall of Veii (396 BCE)


First major victory over Etruscans
City under siege for ten years
Celtic Invasion of Italy (390–387 BC)


Next threat came from the north
Invasion of the Celts (390-387 BCE)



Battle of Battle of Allia River (c. 390 BCE)




Invaded northern Italy in 390 BCE
They were known as the Gauls to the Romans
Led by Brennus, they defeated the 15,000 man Roman army
Chased them to Rome and sacked the city
Only left after the Romans were forced to pay an indemnity
Celts would be a problem for next 200 years

This is until they are defeated by Julius Caesar

Western Mediterranean (c. 348 BCE)
Conquest of Italy


Conquest of Italy began in 340 BCE
Latin Revolts (340-338 BCE




Latin communities revolted against Rome’s dominance
Romans easily crushed the rebellion by 338 BCE
Established complete supremacy over Latium
Roman Confederation





Included the defeated Latins
Three categories: full Roman citizens, municipal status, and
allies
A state’s status could change
All states remained mostly autonomous
Only required to provide men for the Roman army
Conquest of Italy

Samnite Wars (343-290 BCE)








Samnites were from Campania
Rome was able to defeat them
Defeated other Italian groups as well (Etruscans and Umbrians)
Allowed Rome to expand its own territory
Again, these groups were allowed to be mostly autonomous
They had to provide men to the Roman army
Rome controlled their foreign policy
New territories were surrounded by Roman lands



Lands were confiscated by Rome
Roman veterans were encouraged to settle on these lands
If any territory proved disloyal, a Roman army would be sent in

Western Mediterranean (c. 279 BCE)
Conquest of Italy


Next threat is from the Greeks to the south
Pyrrhic War (280-275 BCE)









Greeks hired mercenaries to fight
One leader was King Pyrrhus of Epirus
Pyrrhus invaded in 280 BCE with 25,000 troops and 20 war
elephants
He was able to defeat Rome twice at a huge cost
Rome had an endless supply of soldiers while Pyrrhus did not
“Another such victory and I shall be lost” (“Pyrrhic Victory”)
Romans defeated them in the third battle
These states were added to the Confederation
Provided naval assistance instead of army
Pyrrhic War (280-275 BCE)

In 264 BCE, Rome defeated the last Etruscans




Why was Rome so successful in its conquest of Italy?
Diplomacy


Punished disloyal states but rewarded loyal ones
Using opportunities to their advantage


Rome had control of all of Italy
Exception was the extreme northern region
Used these conquests as a way to increase their security
A practical sense of strategy



Created colonies in newly conquered regions
Built up roads between these settlements
Created a major communications network and an easy path to
send their military if necessary

Carthage (c. 264 BCE)
Roman Conquest of the Mediterranean

Next biggest threat to Rome: Carthage




Rome wanted to acquire Sicily


Settled by Phoenicians in the 9th century BCE
Was the richest and largest state in the Mediterranean
Had a monopoly on the western Mediterranean trade
Most was under the control of the Carthaginians
Opportunity arose in 264 BCE



Involved the city of Messana
Under the control of the Mamertines
In 264 BCE, the city was besieged by Hiero, the King of
Syracuse

King Hiero II
of Syracuse
(270-215 BC)
Clash With Carthage

Mamertines turned first to Carthage



Mamertines then turned to Rome for an alliance



Reasons are unknown
Carthage saw this as a betrayal
Rome was at first hesitant




Negotiated a settlement
Carthage would keep a garrison in Messana and stop Hiero
This was their first military expedition outside of Italy
It would ultimately lead to a class with Carthage
Messana was strategically important
Roman troops took the city easily

Carthage saw this as just cause for war

Sicily
First Punic War (264-241 BCE)

First Punic War (264-241 BCE)





Roman naval strategy





Punic comes from the Latin word for Phoenician, punicus
Both sides attempted to take control of Sicily
Carthage used mercenaries to do most of their fighting
War included north Africa as well
Rome knew it needed a good navy to win
Within two months they had over 100 ships
Rome knew the Carthaginian naval strategy
Responded with Roman “assault bridges”
Battle of Tunis (255 BCE)


Rome’s only major land defeat
Cavalry was outnumbered 8:1 plus Carthage had elephants
First Punic War (264-241 BCE)

Carthage’s problem



Battle of Drepana (242 BCE)



As the war went on, they were losing troops
Because they used mercenaries, they could not find enough to
fill its ranks
Roman navy defeated the Carthaginians
Western Sicily under the control of Carthage surrendered
Carthage sued for peace in 241 BCE



Carthage gave up all rights to Sicily
Promised not attack Syracuse or her allies
Had to pay a large indemnity (22,000 silver talents = 66 tons of
silver) over twenty years
First Punic War (264-241 BCE)

Roman Senate did not approve of the payments


Carthage was in a financial bind



It could not afford the indemnity and pay its soldiers
This led to a revolt by its mercenaries, known as the
Mercenary War (240-238 BCE)
Rome took advantage of this


Wanted 23,000 talents over ten years instead
Seized Corsica and Sardinia in 238 BCE
Carthage could do nothing about it

According to legend, the leading Carthaginian general, Hamilcar
Barca, made his 9-year old son Hannibal swear that he would
hate Rome forever

Hamilcar Barca

(c. 270–228 BCE)
Carthage Between Wars

Carthage turned its attentions to Iberia






Carthage could now rebuild its army
Treaty of Ebro (226 BCE)



Hamilcar hoped to gain riches to rebuild the army
Southern Iberia is rich with copper and silver mines
Provided enough revenue to make up for recent war losses
Also provided manpower for Carthage
Signed by both Carthage and Rome
Divided Iberia into respective spheres of influence using the
Ebro River
In 221 BCE, Hamilcar was assassinated

He was replaced by his 25-year old son, Hannibal

Europe (c. 218 BCE)

Hannibal Barca

(247-183 BCE)
Second Punic War (218-201 BCE)

Leading up to war






In 219 BCE, Rome made an alliance with the city of Sanguntum
It was nervous about the growing power of Hannibal in Iberia
Hannibal attacked and lay siege to the city
Many citizens actually committed suicide
Rome did nothing in response
Second Punic War (218-201 BCE)




Hannibal decided to attack Rome directly
Had 75,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry, and 36 war elephants
First he gained control of the Pyrenees mountains region
Then he defeated the Gauls in southern France
Second Punic War (218-201 BCE)

Crossing the Alps



Invasion of Italy


Hannibal crossed the Alps with 40,000 men, 6,000 horses and
his war elephants
Lost the elephants to the cold climate and he lost his siege
engines as well
Took northern Italy easily
Battle of Cannae (216 BCE)


Romans attempted to meet Hannibal’s forces head on
Hannibal devastated the Roman army, killing as many as 40,000
men

Hannibal’s invasion route
Second Punic War (218-201 BCE)

Revolt of southern Italy




Hannibal was unable to take Rome




After Cannae, many Italian communities rebelled against Rome
Allied with Carthage
Rome was on the verge of collapse
Could not lay siege without siege engines
Also did not have enough troops to take the city
This gave Rome the time it needed to rebuild its army
At the start of the war, Rome sent troops to Iberia

Were initially unsuccessful there
Second Punic War (218-201 BCE)

Iberian forces were put under the command of Publius
Cornelius Scipio in 211 BCE



War in Africa (204-201 BCE




Brilliant general who led Rome into a number of victories
By 206 BCE pushed Carthage out of Iberia
Rome took the war directly to Carthage
Forces were led by Scipio
Carthage was forced to recall Hannibal from Italy
Battle of Zama (202 BCE)



Scipio defeated Hannibal and his forces
Scipio was given the name Scipio Africanus for this victory
This ended the war
Second Punic War (218-201 BCE)

Peace was signed in 201 BCE






Carthage gave up Iberia
Iberia became a Roman province
Carthage was forced to pay a indemnity of 10,000 talents over
50 years
Was not allowed to raise an army or to declare war without
Rome’s permission
Only allowed to keep 10 ships to protect the traders from
pirates
Not all Romans were happy with the peace of 201 BCE


Cato stated “I think that Carthage must be destroyed”
Livy stated “The hatred with which they fought also was almost
greater than their resources"

Publius Cornelius
Scipio Africanus

(235–183 BC)
Third Punic War (149-146 BCE)

In 151BCE, Carthage paid off its final debt to Rome



That year, Numidia attacked Carthage




They believed the treaty was now expired
Rome thought otherwise
Carthage in turn sent troops to attack Numidia
Numidia was an ally of Rome
Rome saw this as a violation of their peace agreement
Sent an ultimatum to Carthage:




Cease hostilities
Surrender their weapons and disband its battlements
Send 300 hostages to Rome
Move the actual city of Carthage further inland
Third Punic War (149-146 BCE)

Carthage refused to concede to the last demand


Third Punic War (149-146 BCE)







Rome declared war
Romans unsuccessfully attacked Carthage in 149 BCE
Laid siege to the city in 147 BCE
Carthage finally fell in 146 BCE
Almost 78% of the Carthaginian population died by that point
This was due to battle, disease, or starvation
The survivors were sold into slavery
Rome now had control of the western Mediterranean

Greece and Macedonia (c. 200 BCE)
Conquest of Eastern Mediterranean

Interest in the eastern Mediterranean began in 219 BCE




After the Battle of Cannae (215 BCE), Philip V made an
alliance with Hannibal



Rome occupied parts of Illyria
This was to stop pirates in the Adriatic Sea
King Philip V of Macedonia did not like having Rome so close
Rome responded by allying themselves with the Aetolian
League
Rome wanted to keep the Macedonians from invading Illyria
First Macedonian War (214 BC - 205 BC)



Rome was focusing its efforts on Carthage
Treaty of Phoenice (205 BCE)
Philip promised to give up his alliance with Hannibal
Second Macedonian War (200-197 BCE)

After the Second Punic War, Rome turned back to
Macedonia


In 200 BCE, Rome got its opportunity






Wanted to punish them for allying with Hannibal
Ambassadors from Rhodes and Pergamum approached Rome
Philip had made an alliance with the Seleucid king, Antiochus III
Then they attacked Ptolemaic Egypt and Asia Minor
Rome saw this as empire building and a threat
Rome allied with both the Aetolian and the Achaean Leagues
Second Macedonian War (200-197 BCE)


Philip did not have many allies left in Greece by this time
Forced to supplant his army with over 25,000 mercenaries
Second Macedonian War (200-197 BCE)

Battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BCE)



Peace of Flamininus (197 BCE)



Philip gave up any interests in Greece and his navy
Had to pay a large indemnity to Rome
Rome announced that it would support the freedom of
the Greek states


Romans cleanly defeated Philip
Philip sued for peace
Still kept garrisons in strategic points throughout Macedonia
Aetolain League was not happy with the peace

The little territory they got was not worth allying with Rome

Philip V of Macedonia
Seleucid War (192-188 BCE)

Aetolain League allied itself with Antiochus



Hoped he would be able to free Greece from Rome
Antiochus agreed as he was looking to gain a foothold in
Europe
Seleucid War (192-188 BCE)





Seleucid troops landed in Greece in 192 BCE
Antiochus stated he was “freeing Greece from Rome”
Rome responded by sending in a force of 30,000 troops
They were led by Scipio Africanus
Defeated the Seleucids at Thermopylae in 191 BCE
Seleucid War (192-188 BCE)

Antiochus retreated back into Asia Minor




Roman troops followed him
Defeated the Seleucids at the Battle of Magnesia (190 BCE_
Seleucids sued for peace
Peace of Apamea (188 BCE)




Antiochus was forced to pay a large indemnity (15,000 talents
of silver) to Rome
Also forced to abandon his territory west of the Taurus
Mountains
Pergamum and Rhodes split that territory
Rome took no land for itself

Antiochus III

(222–187 BCE)
Third Macedonian War (171-167 BCE)

In 179 BCE, Philip V of Macedonia died


Perseus wanted to bring back the glory of Macedonia


This included a continuation of “anti-Roman” policies
The Greek states again appealed to Rome for help



He was replaced by his son Perseus
They were fearing their freedom
Rome agreed to help them out
Third Macedonian War (171-167 BCE)



At first, Macedonian forces were winning the war
Perseus offered a peace treaty but it was quickly refused
The war began to turn in favor of the Romans in 168 BCE
Third Macedonian War (171-167 BCE)

Battle of Pydna (June 22, 168 BCE)




Macedonia was divided into four republics




Roman troops heavily defeated Perseus’s troops
Out of 40,000 Macedonian troops, 25,000 were either dead or
captured
Perseus fled but was captured soon after and sent to Rome
Set up with puppet governments
Rome seized its treasury
Enslaved a large portion of the Macedonia population
In 167 BCE, Roman citizens no longer had to pay direct
property taxes

This was because Rome had acquired so much money from the
wars

Perseus of
Macedonia

(179-166 BCE)
Seizing Control

Fourth Macedonian War (149-148 BCE)





Achaean War (146 BCE)






In 149 BCE, Andriscus rose up in revolt against Rome
Rome responded quickly and sent in troops
Revolt was quickly put down
Macedonia was annexed by Rome as a province
Greeks were not happy with a Rome right next door
Achaean League rose up in revolt in 146 BCE
The revolt was quickly put down
The city of Corinth was completely destroyed
Greece became a Roman province
By 146 BCE, Rome’s empire extended throughout the
Mediterranean

Roman Republic (146 BCE)
Fall of the Roman Republic

Fall of the Roman Republic




While Rome had a secure hold on the Mediterranean by 133
BCE, it was not stable
Process of creating an empire actually weakened and
threatened the internal stability of the Republic
Causes to decline included political, social, and economic
Political and Social Turmoil




Caused by the growing power of the nobiles
By this point, Senate had become the effective governing body
Was not through legislation
Instead, it used its own initiative, which included taking control
of foreign affairs and leading wars
Political and Social Turmoil

Senate was under increasing control of the nobiles



Divided into two groups:



Wealthiest of both the patrician and plebeian classes
Ran for both political and personal gains
Optimates – (“The Best Men”) – They were the nobiles in the
Senate who wished to keep their oligarchic privileges
Populares – (“Favoring the People”) – These were the
aristocrats who used the people’s assemblies to break up the
monopoly of the Optimates
By the 1st century BCE, the Optimates and Populares were
enmeshed in political turmoil
Political and Social Turmoil

Rise of the Equites (“Equestrians”)





Senate limiting Equites’ power



Once formed the Roman cavalry
Acquired their wealthy through a variety of means,
Participated in the expansion of the empire through commerce
or as private contractors
Only by this point did they want a political role
Passed a law in 218 BCE Senators from bidding on state
contracts or engaging in commerce
Kept the Equestrians from holding high office
By 100 BCE, the Equestrians demanded political power
equal to their financial power
Economic Changes


After the Punic Wars, there were major economic
changes
Small farmers were hit the worst





Lands were damaged from invading troops
Farmers were also required to serve for six years
Their farms were in horrendous shape when they returned
Many decided to sell their land rather than reclaim it
Landed aristocracy bought the small farms



Created huge estates (latifundia) by buying out the small farms
or taking over state-owned land
Concentrated on cash crops, including grapes, olives, and sheep
Relied heavily on slave and tenant labor, which small farmers
could not afford to do
Economic Changes

Decline in citizen farmers



With so many farmers losing their properties, decrease in the
number of citizen farmers
Led to decline of men available for military service
Movement to urban areas



Some small farmers remained in the rural areas to try to find
work
More moved into the cities, creating a new class of landless
laborer
Very unstable group that and would cause serious problems in
hard times (e.g., riots)

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus
Reforms of the Gracchus Brothers

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus


Tiberius Gracchus – (163-133 BCE)


Were two nobiles who attempted to fix the economic and
political problems facing Rome
Concerned with the decline of small farmers as well as the
shortage of military recruits
Land-Reform Bill



Placed limits on the amount of state-owned land that could be
held
Stipulated that public land could be given to landless Romans
on a permanent, low-cost lease
Wanted to establish a land commission to oversee the
redistribution of land
Reforms of the Gracchus Brothers

Tiberius knew he would not be able to get this bill
through the Senate



Many of the Senators were upset with this


Most of them were the large landowners who would be most
affected by this bill
Instead he went to the Concilium Plebis, where it easily passed
They had him assassinated in 133 BCE
Gaius Gracchus – (154-121 BCE)



He continued the efforts of his brother
Worked on laws that regulated the price of grain
Included one that enabled grain to be sold at below market
value by establishing government subsidies
Reforms of the Gracchus Brothers

He was not reelected as Tribune of the Plebes in 121 BCE


Gaius and his followers led mass demonstrations in Rome






Senate began stripping all of the reforms he had made
Many brought weapons with them but none were used
Consul Lucius Opimius used the power of senatus consultum
ultimum (“a final decree of the senate”) to restore order
Brought in the military to break up the crowd
Over 3,000 of Gaius’ followers were killed
Gaius had his slave stab him
Impact on Roman Politics


Rome started to think in terms of political “right” and “left”
Used the Concilium Plebis to create an alternative
Reforms of the Gracchus Brothers

Populares and optimates felt justified in this struggle



Populares knew that their reforms could not get pass the
Senate so they needed to break the power of the optimates
Optimates believed the leaders of the populares wanted to bring
in tyranny and use the masses to further their own ambitions
The optimates were unwilling to compromise


They were also quick to resort to violence to stop the
brothers and their followers
This would bring about the beginning of the end of the
Republic

King Micipsa of
Numidia

(148-118 BCE)
The Jugurthine War (111-105 BCE)

The decline of Rome is first seen with the Jugurthine
Wars (111-105 BCE)


It exposed extensive corruption, especially in the Senate
Numidia





Most powerful kingdom in Africa after the Punic Wars
By 111 BCE, the kingdom was under the rule of two brothers
and their cousin Jugurtha
Jurgurtha was a skilled warrior and had been trained in Roman
military tactics
He sought to claim the kingdom for himself
Had one of his cousins assassinated and went to war with the
other
The Jugurthine War (111-105 BCE)

The surviving cousin, Adherbal, turned to Rome for help


Adherbal used Roman soldiers in his army



Many were killed during the course of the war
Those who survived were subsequently killed by Jugurtha
Rome was outraged with the killing of its citizens



Jugurtha used his influence with various Roman families and
very large bribes to prevent Rome from sending in troops
Declared war on Jugurtha in 111BCE
Jugurtha used his influence and money to prevent a battle
Accusations of bribery spread throughout Rome

One of the Tribunes of the Plebs began an investigation into
bribery charges
The Jugurthine War (111-105 BCE)

Jugurtha then ordered the assassination of Adherbal


Once again, Rome went to war





The assassins were caught and confessed to Jugurtha’s
participation
This time, the Romans were quickly defeated
This shocked many Romans
When the commanders of the Roman army returned home,
they came back as newly wealthy men
There were more cries of scandal and bribery
In 109 BCE, Quintus Caecilius Metellus was put in charge
of the army


He was a much better general and came from a respectable
family
Made very little progress against Jugurtha

Gaius Marius

(157-86 BCE)
Marius and the New Roman Army

Gaius Marius (157-86 BCE)



Command of African army




One of Metellus’s legates and subordinate commanders
In 107 BCE, he decided to run for consul and won
Marius was given command by the plebeian assembly
For the next two years he began military reforms
Wanted to increase the number of men eligible to serve
Originally, the Roman army was made up of a group of
conscripted small landowners

However, with the decline in the number of small landowners,
there were not enough men eligible to join the army
Marius and the New Roman Army

New Roman Army






Marius recruited volunteers from the landless working class
Troops would also get retirement benefits and land
They swore an oath to their generals, not the Senate
This put a lot of power into the hands of the generals
Many people quickly joined the army to get these benefits
Rise of Professional Soldiers





Many new soldiers did not have homes to return to
They became career full-time professional soldiers
Would serve terms from 20 to 25 years
Encouraged promotion from within ranks
Created a whole new social class in Rome whose loyalty was
to their generals more than to the state
End of the Jugurthine War

End of Jugurthine War



Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE)





Marius used his new army to fight Jugurtha
Roman troops pushed Jugurtha farther and farther south
One of Marius commanders
Was sent down to negotiate with Bocchus, King of Mauretania
Bocchus was an ally of Jugurtha but was more concerned
about the encroaching Roman troops
Sulla convinced Bocchus to betray and capture Jugurtha
War ended in 105 BCE

Coin of Sulla (Bocchus on left, Jugurtha on right)
Cimbri and Teutons

Threat from the Cimbri and Teutons




Rome had a serious shortage of men to fight in the army



Two roaming Germanic tribes
In 109 BCE, attacked northern Italy
Quickly laid waste to the Roman troops there
Marius was just beginning his reforms
Two wars strained the army
Rome continued to lose to the tribes until 102 BCE



At that point, the army was ready
Led by Sulla and Catulus, the Roman army defeated the tribes
Two of the tribes that joined the battle were almost wiped out
of existence
Decline of Marius

Marius was already popular in Rome




Decline of Marius



Was successful with his army reforms
Was also elected consul from 104-99 BCE
With this victory he was heralded as the “savior of Rome”
Needed to get the land for his soldiers
Made some unhealthy alliances
Saturninus (???-100 BCE)



One of the Tribunes of the Plebs
Wanted to give veterans land in the colonies
Was opposed by the Senate
Decline of Marius

Saturninus began to use mob tactics and open street
violence to push through his requests


Senate issued a senatus consultum ultimatum



This ordered Marius to use his army to put down Saturninus
The Senate went on to void all the laws passed by Saturninus
except for the land grants to veterans
Marius’ political career came to an end


Also used his power to have one of his rivals assassinated,
He went into a self-imposed exile
Army could now be used to save the Republic

But at the same time it showed how it could be used to
destroy it

Marcus Livius Drusus

(??? – 91 BCE)
Social War (91-88 BCE)

Marcus Livius Drusus (???-91 BCE)




Opposition




One of the Tribunes in 91 BCE
Was considered a champion of the Latin allies
Tried to pass a law granting full Roman citizenship to all allied
Italians living south of the Po River
This law was vehemently opposed by many in all social classes
They did not want the Italians to become citizens
Drusus was assassinated soon after
When word of this got out, many of the Italians revolted


This becomes known as the Social War;
Socius is Latin for "ally"
Social War (91-88 BCE)

Italians had fought for Rome but not gotten the bonuses



Marius was called in to put down the revolt




Wanted the same share of land and bonuses given to the
Roman veterans
Put together an army of over 100,000 men
He was put in charge of the northern army
Sulla was put in charge of the southern army
Able to put down most of the rebellion by 88 BCE
Concessions


Granted full citizenship with voting rights to all free Italians
Drastically altered the voting in favor of populares

Lucius Cornelius Sulla

(138-78 BCE)
Rise of Sulla

Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE)






Was a member of the nobiles
One of the leading generals of the Roman Army
Risen up into prominence during the Social War
Awarded the Corona Gaminea ("Grass Crown"), which was
awarded by the soldiers for personal bravery in the field
Elected consul in 88 BCE
Turn to Pontus


Rome’s next target was Mithridates VI, King of Pontus
He played on the discontent in Anatolia about growing Roman
power in the region and taxation

Asia Minor in 90BCE
Rise of Sulla

First Mithridatic War (88-85 BCE)





Mithridates ordered the execution of 80,000 Roman citizens
Included anyone else who spoke with a Latin accent
Senate responded by putting together as massive invasion force
It gave command of that army Sulla
Marius did not like this



He wanted the position for himself even though he was 69
years old at the time
Went to the plebeian assembly
Got it to pass a law giving him command instead
Rise of Sulla

Sulla’s First Civil War (88-87 BCE)







Sulla responded by raising his legions in southern Italy
He turned his armies on Rome itself
Stated the power of the Senate had been nullified and
traditions had been violated
His troops captured Rome after long street battle
Announced that Marius and his allies were now “enemies of
the state”
Marius was forced to flee to Africa
Once in control of the city, Sulla went to Asia Minor

Planned bringing an end to the Mithridatic War
Rise of Sulla

While Sulla was gone, Marius returned to Rome






This time he brought with him Lucius Cornelius Cinna
Marius was able to captured the city with his own troops
He appointed himself Consul for a seventh time
Eliminated Sulla's supporters, killing over 100 nobiles
A few weeks later Marius died of a massive brain hemorrhage
Cinna used Marius’ troops to remain in power as consul


Sent a second army to Pontus to relieve Sulla of command
Sulla was able to convince many members of the second army
to desert and join his army
Rise of Sulla

Battle of Orchomenos (85 BCE)



Sulla turned his attention back to Rome




Sulla defeated Mithridates
Also forced the surrender of the Greece states supporting him
Easily defeated the troops throughout Italy
Even defeated Marius’ son, Gaius Marius the Younger
In 82 BCE, he seized the city of Rome
Temporary Dictator



Senate wanted him to “reconstitute the republic”
It did not have a time limit
This was ratified by the popular assembly
Sulla’s Dictatorship

Taking care of the opposition





Opposition was proscribed and marked “enemies of the state”
Over 1,500 nobiles killed; may have been as high as 9,000
Property and wealth of those proscribed were confiscated
Relatives of the proscribed were forbidden from politics
Power back to the Senate




Increased the number of Senators from 300 to 600
Re-instituted the Cursus Honorum
Set minimum age requirements for holding office, term limits,
and minimum intervals between terms
Eliminated most of the powers of the popular assemblies and
the Tribunes of the Plebs
Sulla’s Dictatorship

Sulla resigned as dictator in 81 BCE



Impact:





Took power away from the populares
Eliminated most of their power in the popular assemblies
Strengthening the power of the Senate and the nobiles
Showed that an army could be used to seize power
Sulla died in 78 BCE


He was elected consul for 80 BCE
Retired from politics in 79 BCE
In the end, his death left a power vacuum
Rome will be divided by civil war for the next fifty years

Marcus Licinius Crassus

(c. 115-53 BCE)
Rise of Crassus and Pompey


Using its newly restored power, the Senate went on to
make two key military appointments
Crassus (c. 115-53 BCE)




Supporter of Sulla
Became wealthy through confiscation of those proscribed
Put down Spartacus in 71 BCE, as part of the Third Servile War
(73-71 BCE)
Gnaeus Pompeius “Pompey” Magnus (106-48 BCE)



Also a supporter of Sulla
Seized control of Iberia from an ally of Marius and restructured
its administration in 71 BCE
Took credit for the end of the Third Servile War

Gnaeus Pompeius
Magnus


(aka Pompey)
(106-48 BCE)
Rise of Crassus and Pompey

Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls in 70 BCE


Putting power back into the hands of the populares





They truly hated one another but joined forces
Undid all of Sulla’s reforms
Restored the power of the Tribunes of the Plebes
Put equites back on juries
Opitimates very suspicious of them, especially Pompey
Pompey received two important military campaigns


Successfully led a navy expedition against the pirates in the
Mediterranean (67 BCE)
In 66 BCE, Pompey was given command of troops to for the
Third Mithridatic War (75-65 BCE)
Rise of Crassus and Pompey

Pompey returned to Rome on September 29, 61 BCE




Received a full Triumph (his third) that lasted for two days
He shared his spoils with Rome
He also disbanded his army
He expected help from the Senate upon his return




Had reorganized the territory in Asia Minor
Also promised his veterans land when they retired
Senate was not so willing to help
Over the past five years the forces of power had shifted

Julius Caesar

(100-44 BCE)
Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE)

Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE)



Caesar returned to Rome in 78 BCE


He became a spokesman for the populares
Political appointments:




Was threatened with proscription during Sulla’s dictatorship
Joined the army fighting campaigns in Asia until Sulla’s death
Quaestor in Iberia (69 BCE)
Pontifex Maximus (63 BCE)
Praetor of Iberia (62 BCE)
Military commander in Iberia


Conquered the Celts and Lusitanians in northern Iberia
His troops gave him the title of imperator in 60 BCE

Marcus Tullius Cicero

(106-43 BCE)
The Catilinarian Conspiracy

Financial struggles



Lucius Sergius Catilina (108-62 BCE)





Many Romans were suffering financial hardships from the wars
By 63 BCE, debt was at an all time high
Ran for consulship in 66 BCE
Supported the cancellation of debts
He was massive debt as well
The optimates were against this policy and he lost the election
Birth of the conspiracy



Hoped to make changes to the Republic through legal means
Realized this could only be done through revolt
Got support from different classes as many suffered from debt
The Catilinarian Conspiracy

The conspiracy was uncovered in October 63 BCE




Roman troops were able to quickly put down the revolt



Discovered by Consul Marcus Tullus Cicero
Cicero informed the Senate of this plot and its danger to the
Republic
Series of speeches known as the Catiline Orations
Catiline himself died in battle
Those conspirators who did survive were executed
Conspiracy discredited the populares

On the other hand, it strengthened the power of the Senate

The Mediterranean c. 59 BCE
First Triumvirate

In 61 BCE, Pompey was annoyed with the Senate




They were enjoying the increase of power after the defeat of
the Catilinarian Conspiracy
And they were fearful of Pompey’s popularity with the masses
Refused to ratify the arrangements he requested
In 60 BCE, Caesar returned from Iberia





With the new title of imperator Caesar was allowed a Triumph
However, this posed a serious problem for Caesar
He could request a Triumph which would keep him as a soldier
and thus ineligible for office
He could refuse the Triumph and become a private citizen and
run for office
Caesar wanted to do both but the Senate refused him
First Triumvirate


Caesar wanted the consulship more than the Triumph
Formation of the First Triumvirate







Caesar knew he needed a strong alliance as the Senate was
getting too powerful
Caesar was an ally of Crassus for quite some time
Crassus had helped pay off some of Caesar’s debt
Pompey was already upset with the Senate
Caesar secured Pompey’s help by giving Pompey his daughter
in marriage
Formed what historians call the First Triumvirate
Their enemies called them the “three headed monster”
First Triumvirate

Caesar as consul (59 BCE)







Used the influence of the other two to win
Succeeded in achieving the goals for the Triumvirate
Caesar got the proconsulship of Gaul for five years
Crassus was promised a future consulship
His allies got a reduction on tax contracts that they had
originally been forced to overbid on
Pompey got the land for his veterans and his own political
ambitions
In 58 BCE, Caesar left for Gaul

Conquered most of France, Belgium, and parts of Germany by
55 BCE
First Triumvirate

Instability in Rome



Alliance was also unstable




Publius Clodius Pulcher was elected Tribune in 58 BCE
Used mob violence to push through reforms for the populares
Pompey was siding more and more with the optimates
Caesar’s power base in the city was diminishing
Pompey and Crassus remembered the importance of having
military commands
Reaffirmation of the alliance

Met in northern Italy to renew their alliance in 56 BCE
First Triumvirate

As part of the agreement:






In late 55 BCE, Crassus left almost immediate for Syria



Caesar got a 5-year extension in Gaul
Crassus and Pompey would be elected consul for 55 BCE
Crassus would also receive a military command in Syria
Pompey would receive a military command in Spain
Caesar also sent 1,000 troops into Rome to quiet things down
He planned on invading the Parthian Empire in Iran
He unfortunately is killed in battle in 53 BCE
This left Pompey in charge of running the government

Not a good politician and started moving closer to the
optimates
Rise of Caesar

Caesar continued his success in Gaul




Defeated an invasion of Germanic tribes attempting to cross
the Rhine
Successfully invaded southern Britain in 54 BCE on his second
try, but had to abandon it in 52 BCE
By 52 BCE, the provinces of Belgica, Aquitania and Lugdunesis
were created
His military successes made Caesar more powerful




He acquired enough loot and slaves to pay off all of his debts
He also had a large army who were loyal solely to him
This frightened not only the Senate but Pompey as well
The Senate sided with Pompey because he was seen as the
lesser threat of the two
Rise of Caesar

In 50 BCE, the Senate told Caesar to return to Rome





Caesar then sent troops down towards Rome



Supported by Pompey
Also would have to give up his armies if he wanted to run for
consul
Caesar, of course, refused
On January 1, 49 BCE, Caesar was declared a “public enemy”
On January 11, 49 BCE he stood on the banks of the Rubicon
River which would led him into Italy
It is at this point that Caesar told his troops “Alea iacta est”
("Let the die be cast“)
Pompey and his supporters fled to Greece

He had planned on amassing his own army to fight Caesar
Caesar’s Civil War

Caesar arrived in Rome at the end of March 49 BCE



Campaign in Spain




He seized the treasury containing 15,000 bars of gold, 30,000
bars of silver and 30 million sesterces
Only stayed for a week
Easily defeated Pompey’s troops there
Some troops mutinied from Pompey’s control
Caesar now turned to Greece
Battle of Pharsalus (August 9, 48 BCE)



Caesar was outnumbered 2:1
Pompey’s troops were not trained Roman legions
Pompey was defeated and fled to Egypt
Caesar’s Civil War

When Pompey arrived in Egypt he was assassinated



Caesar was giving Pompey’s head and ring in a basket



One of Ptolemy XIII’s counselors knew that Caesar would
follow after Pompey
He believed this way he could get in good graces with him
He was incredibly upset that they had killed Pompey
According to Plutarch, "he turned away…with loathing, as from
an assassin; and when he received Pompey's signet ring on
which was engraved a lion holding a sword in his paws, he burst
into tears“
Caesar deposed Ptolemy

His sister, Cleopatra VII, was put in power
Caesar’s Civil War

During the winter of 48/47 BCE, Caesar helped secure
power for Cleopatra



Turn towards the east



Defeated king of Pontus at the Battle of Zela (Aug. 47 BCE)
With the easy defeat, Caesar stated “veni, vidi, vici” (“I came, I
saw, I conquered”)
Caesar was named temporary dictator in absentia


In the process, he enjoyed a love affair with her
Ordered the Egyptian fleet burnt
Term was for ten years
Caesar then went on to defeat King Juba I of Numidia
Caesar as Dictator

In July 46 BCE, Caesar returned to Rome



Four Triumphs were held for him that lasted for ten days
Over 300 million sesterce (~$7 billion) were doled out to his
veterans and the population of Rome
Caesar used his power to institute numerous reforms





Increased the Senate to 900, filling it with his followers
Granted citizenship to his supporters
Established colonies of Roman citizens in North Africa, Gaul,
and Spain
Pardoned those who opposed him during the civil war
Brought in a new calendar based on the Egyptian one (365
solar days) and renamed the month of Quintilis to Julius, or July
Caesar as Dictator

Some were fearful of Caesar’s power



Dictator Perpetuus


He placed his supporters in positions as high as consul
Many believed that he would try to take the title of king
Given by the Senate in 44 BCE
Festival of Lupercalia



Caesar wanted to find out if the public would accept him as
king
Mark Antony, one of Caesar’s co-consuls, attempted to place a
diadem (crown) on top of Caesar’s head
When Caesar heard no cheers of support from the crowd he
refused it
Caesar as Dictator

Assassination (March 15, 44 BCE)






Put together by a group of leading senators, known as
Liberatores
Hooped that the old republican system would return with
Caesar’s death
Was lured to the Senate to discuss a petition
Instead was stabbed 23 times
Involved sixty conspirators, including Marcus Brutus
Caesar chose Gaius Octavius Thurinus (“Octavian”) as his
heir


His grandnephew
Caesar chose him as his adopted son

Gaius Octavius Thurinus
(“Octavian”)

(63 BCE - 14 CE)
Octavian (63 BCE – 14 CE)

Octavian (63 BCE – 14 CE)




Was serving in Illyria when he heard of Caesar’s death
Rushed back to Rome recruiting some of Caesar’s troops
along the way
Also seized funds that were to be used for Caesar’s next
campaign
He arrived in Rome on May 6, 44 BCE


By this point, most of Caesar’s assassins had been driven out of
Rome
Mark Antony had already gained political support for him
Second Triumvirate

Second Triumvirate





Octavian allied himself with Antony and Marcus Lepidus
Lepidus had been commander of Caesar’s cavalry
This one was actually legally sanctioned via Lex Titia
Allowed them to rule for five years
Their first job was to rid Rome of their opponents



They renewed Sulla’s policy of proscription
Many of their enemies were killed
Including Cicero who had not participated in Caesar’s
assassination but spoke out against Antony numerous times
Second Triumvirate

Brutus and Gaius Cassius, the two responsible for
Caesar’s death, escaped




They were able to amass an army in the east
They were defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BCE
The power of the Triumvirate was now secure
In 40 BCE, the Triumvirate divided the republic into
spheres of influence



Octavian got the west
Antony the east
Lepidus got Africa
Second Triumvirate

Treaty of Tarentum (38 BCE)


Renewed the Triumvirate for another five years
Problems for the Triumvirate







Like its predecessor, this triumvirate was plagued with jealously
and instability
Antony wanted to go to war against Parthian
Octavian would not send troops to help
Antony turned to Egypt for help and fell in love with Cleopatra
Lepidus was accused of trying to seize power in Sicily in 36
BCE and was subsequently put into exile
In 33 BCE, the Triumvirate was not renewed
Octavian continued to use the title Triumvir

Mark Antony

(83-30 BCE)
Octavian v. Antony

Octavian v. Antony






Focused his attention at eliminating Antony
Octavian used Antony’s love affair with Cleopatra for his own
propaganda
Octavian illegally got a copy of Antony’s will
Stated that Antony's children by Cleopatra would get a good
portion of his inheritance
Claimed that Anthony was giving away land to the “whore of
the East”
Rome was not happy and the Senate declared war on
Cleopatra
Octavian v. Antony

Battle of Actium (September 31 BCE)



In August 30 BCE, a messenger told Antony that
Cleopatra had been captured



Octavian’s forces defeated both Antony’s army and navy in
Greece
Antony escaped to Egypt but was defeated again in Alexandria
He committed suicide
Cleopatra, who was not captured, killed herself after hearing
the news of Antony’s death
With Antony dead, Octavian had sole power for himself

This marks the end of the Roman Republic