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Marcus Tullius Cicero
106 BCE – 43 BCE
Marcus Tullius Cicero
his rise to prominence
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Born 106 BC at Arpinum into wealthy equestrian family;
A novus homo = the first in his family to pursue a public career
Study of rhetoric and philosophy at Rome
Appeared in the Forum under mentorship of great orator Lucius Licinus Crassus
89 BCE military service in Social War under command of Pompeius Strabo
81 BCE his debut as orator; 80 BCE defended Sextus Roscius (Pro Roscio) on important
figure of Sulla’s regime (by doing this took on important figure of Sulla’s regime)
79-77 BCE study of philosophy in Greece And Asia Minor and rhetoric with Molon of Rhodos
On his return marries Terentia, has a daughter, Tullia in 76 BCE, son Marcus 65 BCE
75 BCE Quaestor in Sicily
70 BCE takes Sicilians as clients in prosecution against ex-governor Verres for extortion
and corruption; wins case; earns reputation as Rome’s leading orator
69 BCE Aedile
66 BCE Praetor, supports Pompey the Great in obtaining special command with enormous
imperium against pirates and Mithradates, king of Pontus in the East
63 BCE Consul – apex of his career; puts down conspiracy of Catiline
Cicero’s fall from grace
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Troubled by First Triumvirate (60 BCE) between Pompey, Crassus and Caesar
Disliked alliance - too private for his taste– a threat to the senate’s authority
58 BCE Cicero is accused of having put to death without due trial the fellow conspirators of
Catiline, members of the nobility (prominent senatorial families) in his consulship, made
enemy of Iulius Caesar (patrician family) Cicero a novus homo
Sent into exile, his house razed to the ground
57 BCE recalled to Rome
56-51 BCE attempts (with difficulty) to collaborate with triumvirs,
51 Governor of Cilicia (in East)
49 BCE Civil Wars at Rome – Cicero joins cause of Pompey; Pompey defeated; Cicero
pardoned by Caesar
46 divorces Terentia, married his ward Publilia, divorced her after a few months
45 BCE daughter Tullia dies; he never recovers from this tragedy
During Caesar’s dominance in public life, stays ways from politics, Period in which he
composes series of philosophical works
44 BCE Caesar is murdered, Cicero returns to politicial life; opposes Antony, series of
speeches against him: the Philippics; supports cause of Senate
Octavian abandons support o Senate and joins Antony and Lepidus in Second Triumvirate
Each Triumvir had to give up one supporter: Octavian sacrifices Cicero
Cicero murdered Dec. 7, 43 BCE by Antony’s henchmen
Cicero and Roman Politics:
his ideology
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Participant in Rome’s crisis that leads to end of Roman
Republican government;
develops ethical-political program in attempt to remedy
situation.
Although a novus homo. His program intended to
provide a solid intellectual, ethical, political base for a
dominant class: a balance of respect for national
tradition (mos maiorum) and pleasures of otium (leisure)
filled with art, literature, or pleasures of refined style of
life summed up in the term humanitas – a consciousness
of culture,capacity to distinguish and appreciate what is
beautiful and fitting.
Ideology reflected in many of his speeches and
philosophical works
The Works of Cicero
The speeches
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Some of the most important speeches
include: Pro Quinctius (81), Pro Roscio
Amerino (80), Pro Cluentio (66), De
Imperio Cn. Pompeii or Pro Lege Manilia
(66), the 4 Catilinarians (63), Pro Sestio
(56), Pro Caelio (56), In Pisonmem (55),
Philippics (44-43),
Rhetorical and Political works
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De Inventione (c.54 BC), De oratore (54
BC), Oratoriae (c.54), De optimo genere
oratorum (52 BC), Brutus (46 BC), Orator
(46 BC), Topica (44)
De republica (54-51 BC) On the Republic
 De legibus (52 BC) On Laws
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Philosophical works
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Paradoxa Stoicorum Stoic Paradoxes(46),
Academica (45), De finibus bonorum et
malorum On the limits of good and evil(45),
Tuslucan Disputations Tusculan Disputations
(45), de natura deorum (45), de divinatione
On the nature of the gods(44), de divinatione
On divinations (44), de fato On Fate(44),
Cato Maior de Senectute Cato the Elder on
Old Age(44), Laelius de Amicitia Laelius on
Friendship(44), De Officiis On Duties(44)
Correspondence and more
Ad familiares in 16 books (letters to family)
 At Atticus in 16 books (letters to his friend
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Atticus)
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Ad Quintum Fratrem 27 letters (letters to his
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brother Quintus
Ad M. Brutum 2 books – authentic? (Letters
to Brutus
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Some (bad) poetry – survived only in
fragments
Cicero and Politics
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Variety of works allows us to see
connection between personal life
experience and his public position,
especially his speeches and his private
letters
The Catilinarian Conspiracy
The Political Setting
66-60 BCE
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Pompey the Great had raised the bar for political competition for everyone;
campaigns for office have become extremely expensive
65 BCE – Julius Caesar (Aedile) proposes massive gladiatorial show (320 pairs of
gladiators); senate forces him to reduce the scale;
Caesar incurs massive debt; bailed out by Crassus (who in turns want military
command) ;
64 BCE – Crassus and Caesar support L. Sergius Catilina (aka. Catiline) for the
consulship of 63 BCE; Defeated by M. Tullius Cicero.
63 BCE – Cicero and Antonius Hybrida are elected consuls;
Catiline (hopelessly in debt) tries again for 62 BCE;
The Conspiracy of Catiline foiled by Cicero (In Catilinam); allegations of Caesar’s and
Crassus’ involvement; Catiline and many followers die on the battlefield; Caesar
argues for clemency, M. Porcius Cato for death; Cicero executes the conspirators.
The Conspiracy of Catiline
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“After these preparations, Catiline nonetheless stood for the consulship for the next
year (62 BC), hoping that should he be elected he could easily do what he liked with
Antonius. In the meantime he was not idle, but kept working on all kinds of plots
against Cicero, who, however, was not lacking in the guile and the astuteness to
evade them. For at the very start of his consulship, by numerous promises made
through Fulvia, Cicero had persuaded Quintus Curius, whom I mentioned a short
while ago, to lay bare Catiline’s plots to him. He had also persuaded his colleague
Antonius not to harbour designs against the state by agreeing to let him have his
province; he had also secretly stationed around himself bodyguards of friends and
clients. When election day came and Catiline was successful neither in his
candidature nor in the plots he had made against the consuls in the Campus Martius,
he decided on war and resorting to extreme measures, since his undercover attempts
had met with failure and dishonour. He therefore dispatched Gaius Manlius to
Faesulae and that area of Etruria, a certain Septimius Camerinum to the Picene
district, Gaius Julius to Apulia, and others to any other places he believed might suit
his purpose. In the meantime he was busy with many plans at once; laying traps for
the consul, preparing to set fires, stationing armed men in strategic places, and
himself went armed, ordering the others to do the same, and urging them to be
always alert and ready.” (Sallust, Conspiracy of Catiline, 26.1-27.2
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Our versions:
Catiline’ s objectives
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Somewhat clouded by the sources (Sallust, Conspiracy of
Catiline; Cicero, Against Catiline).
Lost elections to consulship twice;
Desperate for the office to recover his debts
Planned to seize the consulship by force; abolish debts.
Legislation in the interests of families who were victims of
Sulla.
Many elite families proscribed in Sulla’s regime and lost their
family fortunes; Sons of the dispossessed ready to claim their
‘birthright’ the right to high office
Populares rhetoric.
Optimates
Implicating Caesar
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“At the same time Quintus Catulus (cos. 78) and Gaius Piso (cos.
67) in vain tried by entreaties, influence and bribes to persuade
Cicero to have a false accusation brought against Gaius (Julius)
Caesar either through the Allobroges or some other witness. For
both were bitter personal enemies of Caesar; Piso, when on trial for
extortion, had been charged by him with unjustly executing a man
from Transpadane Gaul, while Catulus’ hatred arose out of his
candidature for the pontificate, because he had reached a ripe old
age and attained the highest offices but was beaten by Caesar,
while still a young man. Moreover, it seemed an opportune time as
Caesar, through his pre-eminent generosity in private life and lavish
entertainments in office, was heavily in debt. But they were unable
to incite the consul to so monstrous a crime…” (Sallust, Conspiracy
of Catiline, 49.1-4. Dillon & Garland, 12.20)
A Naturally Gifted Orator
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“…for when he was of an age for taking lessons, his natural talent
shone out clear and he won name and fame among the boys, so
that their fathers used to visit the schools in order to see Cicero
with their own eyes and observe the quickness and intelligence in
his studies for which he was extolled, though the ruder ones among
them were angry at their sons when they saw them walking with
Cicero placed in their midst as a mark of honour. And although he
showed himself, as Plato thought a nature should do which was
fond of learning and fond of wisdom, capable of welcoming all
knowledge and incapable of slighting any kind of literature or
training, he lent himself with somewhat greater ardour to the art of
poetry. And a little poem which he wrote when a boy is still extant,
called Pontius Glaucus, and composed in tetrameter verse.
Moreover, as he grew older and applied himself with greater
versatility to such accomplishments, he got the name of being not
only the best orator, but also the best poet among the Romans. His
fame for oratory abides to this day, although there have been great
innovations in style; but his poetry, since many gifted poets have
followed him, has altogether fallen into neglect and disrepute.”
(Plutarch, Cicero, 2. Loeb Classical Library, 1919)
Launching a Political Career:
Cicero and the Pro Roscio (80 BCE)
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“About this time Chrysogonus, a freedman of Sulla's, put up at public
auction the estate of a man who, as it was said, had been put to death
under proscription, and bought it in himself for two thousand drachmas.
Then Roscius, the son and heir of the deceased, was indignant and set
forth clearly that the estate was worth two hundred and fifty talents,
whereupon Sulla, enraged to have his actions called in question, indicted
Roscius for the murder of his father, Chrysogonus having trumped up the
evidence. No advocate would help Roscius, but all avoided him through
their fear of Sulla's cruelty, and so at last, in his destitution, the young
man had recourse to Cicero. Cicero's friends encouraged him to undertake
the case, arguing that he would never again have a more brilliant or a
more honourable opportunity to win fame. Accordingly, he undertook the
defence of Roscius, won his cause, and men admired him for it; but fearing
Sulla, he made a journey to Greece, after spreading a report that his health
needed attention. For in fact he was spare and lean, and owing to a
weakness of the stomach could only with difficulty take a little light food
late in the day; his voice, however, was full and strong, but harsh and
unmodulated, and since, owing to the vehemence and passion of his
oratory, it was always forced into the higher tones, it made men
apprehensive for his health.” (Plutarch, Cicero, 3. Loeb Classical Library,
1919)
Proof of Cicero’s Power of Oratory:
The Death of Cicero (43 BCE)
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“But meantime his assassins came to the villa, Herennius a centurion, and
Popillius a tribune, who had once been prosecuted for parricide and defended
by Cicero; and they had helpers. After they had broken in the door, which they
found closed, Cicero was not to be seen, and the inmates said they knew not
where he was. Then, we are told, a youth who had been liberally educated by
Cicero, and who was a freedman of Cicero's brother Quintus, Philologus by
name, told the tribune that the litter was being carried through the wooded and
shady walks towards the sea. The tribune, accordingly, taking a few helpers
with him, ran round towards the exit, but Herennius hastened on the run
through the walks, and Cicero, perceiving him, ordered the servants to set the
litter down where they were. Then he himself, clasping his chin with his left
hand, as was his wont, looked steadfastly at his slayers, his head all squalid and
unkempt, and his face wasted with anxiety, so that most of those that stood by
covered their faces while Herennius was slaying him. For he stretched his neck
forth from the litter and was slain, being then in his sixty-fourth year.
Herennius cut off his head, by Antony's command, and his hands — the hands
with which he wrote the Philippics. For Cicero himself entitled his speeches
against Antony "Philippics," and to this day the documents are called Philippics.
When Cicero's extremities were brought to Rome, it chanced that Antony was
conducting an election, but when he heard of their arrival and saw them, he
cried out, "Now let our proscriptions have an end." Then he ordered the head
and hands to be placed over the ships' beaks on the rostra, a sight that made
the Romans shudder; for they thought they saw there, not the face of Cicero,
but an image of the soul of Antony. (Plutarch, Cicero, 48-9. Loeb Classical Library,
1919)
Roman Oratory
And Politics
The development of Oratory and its
place in Roman culture
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Two necessary prerequisites for social and political advancement in
the Roman Republic: 1. Military reputation, 2. Oratorical skills
Oratory always central to political life
Native Roman tradition until 200 BCE, then influenced by Greek
models.
First famous Roman orator: M. Porcius Cato the last “Native Roman”
orator
Ser. Sulpicius Galba (Cos. 144 BCE) and M. Lepidus (Cos. 137 BCE)
were the first to import Greek rhetorical skills into Roman oratory
By Cicero’s time 2 oratorical styles prevailed:
1. Asiatic (Flowery, descriptive, emotional, verbose), 2. The Attic
(Plain, unornamented, brief, to the point, economical)
The Importance of Style:
Cicero on the Ideal Orator
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“The student of oratory must acquire knowledge of a great many
things, without which knowledge fluency of speech is empty and
ridiculous. The student must develop his style by careful attention
not only to word choice but also to sentence construction. He must
be thoroughly acquainted with all the emotions which nature has
bestowed on the human race because he must use all his power
and ability at speaking to calm or, alternatively, to stir up those who
are listening to him. He should also include in his style of speaking a
certain charm and wit, erudition worthy of a well-bred man,
quickness and brevity both in replying and rebutting, as well as
refined elegance and urbanity. He must moreover memorize history
and a wealth of precedents, and not neglect knowledge of the laws
and civil code. Need I speak further about delivery itself?” (Cicero,
About the Orator 1.16-20. Jo Ann Shelton, Doc. 159)
Quintilian Criticizes the Asiatic Style
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“The result of this emphasis on brilliance is
usually a deterioration of our oratorical skills,
primarily because the best expressions are those
which are least contrived and which have an air
of simplicity, as if deriving from the truth itself.
For those expressions which betray their
artfulness and strive to appear polished and
carefully designed fail to produce a pleasing
effect and do not win credibility.” (Quintilian,
The Elements of Oratory, 8. 22-26. Jo Ann
Shelton, Doc. 158).
Types of Roman Oratory
3 types of Roman Oratory: 1.Judicative, 2.
Deliberative, 3. Demonstrative
 Judicative = Judicial questions coming before a
court – most important (see Cicero’s career)
 Deliberative = Political or policy questions used
when coming before the senate or one of the
assemblies
 Demonstrative = Attribution of praise or blame;
more relevant in the Principate.
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The Components of Oratory
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Public Orations consisted of several component parts
Exordium = preliminary remarks – nature of the case – importance
of the case
Narratio = outline of the facts on which the main arguments will
rely
Propositio = the main argument (thesis)
Argumentatio = the arguments supporting the thesis
Confutatio = outline and refutation of the main arguments (real or
imagined) used by an opponent
Peroratio = Summary of argument; concluding remarks and
exhortation
The Composition Process
Several formal elements for the composition of
an effective oration
 Inventio = The gathering of material
 Dispositio = Laying out the material in the most
effective order
 Elocutio = Choice of most effective language for
making the case
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The Place of Oratory in the Life of
the Roman Statesman
Oratorical skills needed to plead cases in
the law courts and the assembly
 Good way for a young and ambitious
politician to get noticed
 Strong orators desired as a patronus or a
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cliens