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Roman military expansion The Conquest of Italy 5th century to 264 BCE Part I Lecture Outline Sources for the period Political/Social Context Major historical sources For earliest period: Livy (end of 1st century BCE) Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek (end of 1st century BCE) Both anachronistic – projecting army of of 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE back onto regal period and 5th – 4th centuries BCE Genre of historical writings focused on politics and military affairs – but excluded technical details of early army organization and structure No historical writings in Rome before ca. 200 BCE Polybius – wrote in 2nd century BCE – had personal military experience, interest in technical details – has good understanding of evolution of tactics and weaponry Polybius’ purpose to explain success of Rome’s army to a Greek audience; provides comparison of Roman tactical formations with Greek infantry phalanx Best account we have of Roman army in mid 2nd century BCE Our sources for this period: the antiquarians Varro (M. Terentius Varro) mid 1st century BCE (only fragments survived) Antiquarians had narrow focus: interested in details: use of technical terms and institutional development probably the sources for technical digressions (i.e. Servian army) by Livy and Dionysius Material sources for the period supporting written sources, etc. Pictorial representations of equipment and combat Weapons finds Archaeology (i.e. discovery of five 2nd century Roman camps near Numantia in north central Spain Only few inscriptions exist for this period Fasti – list of religious events, list of consuls including commanders who received a military triumph (list seems accurate as far back as mid 4th century BCE) Fasti form basis for chronological reconstruction of earlier periods Earliest campaigns our sources provide some idea of strategy in campaign – against the Samnites and Gauls after 300 BCE From that time on we are able to reconstruct with some degree of accuracy at least general course of some individual battles, i.e. the battle at Sentinum in 295 BCE Difficulty remains to match the troop and casualty numbers Difficult to match topography of many battles with description of places in our sources, i.e. battle at Cannae in 216; Political and Social Context Important social changes at the end of the Regal Period: 6th century Greek Hoplite revolution changes in nature of Roman warfare Social changes in archaic Greece, 7th and 6th centuries associated with rise of Greek city state (polis) – and so-called hoplite revolution Increase in population, rise of polis, non-aristocrats demanded increased participation in political decisions and military affairs - areas dominated by aristocrats Archaic (Homeric warfare) expensive equipment Hoplite soldier– relative light and less expensive armor drawn from mostly farmers who could afford this equipment Resulted in higher proportion of population participating in war Landowners/citizen of polis had duty to fight for their state, see increase in political power, right to fight to protect their community Livy attributes a major reform of Rome’s political, social, and military organization to 6th king, Servius Tullius – 6th century, (Servian Constitution) Servian reform also linked to hoplite warfare, Archaeology confirms hoplite equipment used in 6th century Rome Servius Tullius (578 – 534 BCE – the 6th king) Credited with most significant social reorganization that provided basis for Republican organization Important reorganization of the citizen body according to property value and the Comitia Centuriata (Centuriate Assembly) Reorganization of the Comitia Tributa (Tribal Assembly) The Servian Constitution: property classes and the Comitia Centuriata Division of population into classes based on their property value (i.e. originally how many bushels of grain their land could produce) agrarian society Each class had to provide their own set of military equipment based on their income class From full hoplite equipment for Class I to a simple sling for Class V assembled on Campus Martius (plain of Mars) outside pomerium (sacred boundary of city – established by Romulus) – place where army mustered and practiced (no arms allowed inside city boundaries) The Comitia Centuriata and the voting hierarchy Citizen body who owned land (only those could afford to bear arms) were divided hierarchically according to wealth. I - Equites (knights) = 18 Centuries = 18 votes 100,000 asses + = 82 Centuries = 82 votes II - 75,000-100,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votes III - 50,000-75,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votes IV - 25,000-50,000 asses = 20 Centuries = 20 votes V - 11,000-25,000 asses = 32 Centuries = 32 votes Under 11,000 asses = 1 Century = 1 vote Total 193 centuries – voting was completed when majority was reached: 96 Heavily in favour of the wealthy Functions during monarchy not clear; in Republic: declarations of war and peace; as court for capital trials; elected consuls Servian Constitution the Comitia Tributa = tribal assembly The original 3 tribes created by Romulus were divided into new tribes 4 urban tribes (named after districts of Rome); 17 rural tribes [named after gentes =(clans) of patricians] Later more tribes added to total of 35 (4 urban, 31 rural) Each Roman citizen enrolled in a tribe (name of tribe part of full name of Roman citizen) Slaves who were legally manumitted and became citizens also were enrolled in a tribe Patricians and Plebeians Patrician-plebeian distinction originated in the Regal Period but continued into the Early Republic - where it led to the struggle of the orders followed by important social changes Patricians = landed aristocracy by birth; dominated all public offices (senate, command of armies) and priestly offices; Originally warlords who were supported by bands of armed followers (clientes) ; patron-client system – extremely important element of Roman social structure Kings needed their support to rule Plebeians = everyone else - Patricians and Plebeians the ‘struggle of the orders’ 494 BCE – 287 BCE: Political struggle between Patricians and Plebeians over inequities in Republican government. Plebeians were barred from holding public office and sit in senate barred from intermarriage with Patricians. All courts in hand of patricians – plebeians resented the unfair treatment by Patrician magistrates, especially concerning the law. Many pleibeians were heavily indebted to the point of debt bondage (nexum) = debtor would give himself as surety (could be sold into slavery), Resented the unfair distribution of Ager Publicus (public land confiscated from conquered neighbours. Resented increasing patricians’ monopoly of military commands 494 Plebeian secession Patricians yielded to demands: Major reforms: Concilium Plebis = Plebeian Assembly. And Tribune of the Plebs = Plebeian magistracy. Plebeian Discontent Over The Law Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 10.1.2-4 “For there was not as yet among the Romans equality either of laws or of rights, nor had their rules of justice been put in writing; but initially, their kings had laid down judgements for those who asked for it, and whatever they decreed was law…A few decisions were kept in sacred books, and had the force of laws, but only the patricians were aware of these because they spent their time in the city, while the majority of the people were merchants or farmers and came to the capital to the markets at intervals of many days, and were still unacquainted with them.” (M. Dillon & L. Garland, 2005) Struggle of the Orders: major reforms Concilium Plebis = Plebeian Assembly. Tribune of the Plebs = Plebeian magistracy. Access to law: Law of the XII Tables – 450s BCE Between 450 BCE and 287 BCE series of reforms/laws eliminated distinction between patricians and plebeians **Republican Government from 509 BCE to 287 BCE: General Characteristics Republican system evolved gradually between 509 and 287 BCE. Government consisted of: 1.Elected magistrates. 2. Senate. 3. Assemblies. Referred to as “Mixed” constitution; 3 elements: 1. monarchic (the 2 consuls who could veto each other), 2. oligarchic (senate), and 3. democratic (voting assemblies). All magistrates elected for 1 year term and had colleagues Roman Family and Household (domus) Family, most important social unit domus = household that includes: all members of the family, slaves, other dependents (freed), as well as all property and reputation of the domus (very important for members of elite – the accomplishments of ancestors and present members increased their prominence in society) Head of household = pater familias According to Laws of the XII Tables –the pater familias had the right of life and death over all in his patria potestas (paternal power), i.e. children, slaves, Marriage - main function to produce heirs, transmit property, produce Roman soldiers, form political alliances (among elite) The Patron-Client System Social relations provided basic fabric of Roman social structure Patron-client system most important social relationship in Roman Republic Socially unequal relationship Patron = Wealthy elite, provided a client with loans, legal help, other opportunities and services. Client = of lower social status, supported his patron by voting for him in elections, supported his legislative initiatives, other services including social display; Patrons carried out military levy in early Republic Patron-Client relationship inheritable Freedmen, individuals of lower status all could be patrons – their clients would be of lower status than they Clients also had the duty of assist the patron when in need, i.e. if they met with economic disaster, etc., Dionysius of Halicarnassus (2.9-10) on Patricians, Plebeians, and the Patron-Client System “After Romulus distinguished the more powerful members of society from the less powerful, he then set up laws and established what things were to be done by each of the two groups. The patricians were to serve as priests and magistrates, lawyers and judges. The plebeians were to till the land, herd livestock, and work for wages as craftsmen, tradesmen, and labourers. Romulus entrusted the plebeians to the protection of the patricians, but permitted each plebeian to choose for his patron any patrician whom he himself wished. This system is called patronage. Romulus then established these rules about patronage. It was the duty of the patricians to explain the laws to their clients, to bring suits on their behalf if they were wronged or injured, and to defend them against prosecutors….It was unlawful or unholy for patricians and clients to bring suit against one another, to testify against one another in court, or to vote against the other. If anyone was convicted of some such misdeed, he was guilty under the law of treason and could be executed.” (J.A. Shelton, Doc. 7). The Sacred Bond of Patron and Client (The Laws of the Twelve Tables – 450 BCE) “If a patron shall have defrauded his client, he must be solemnly forfeited” Forfeited (Latin = sacer) meant that he was outside the law and could be killed with impunity by anyone who finds him Attius Clausus / Appius Claudius and his clientes 504 BCE “The new consuls were M. Valerius and P. Postumius. This year a successful action was fought with the Sabines; the consuls celebrated a triumph. Then the Sabines made preparations for war on a larger scale. To oppose them and also at the same time to guard against danger in the direction of Tusculum, from which place war, though not openly declared, was still apprehended, the consuls elected were P. Valerius for the fourth time and T. Lucretius for the second. A conflict which broke out amongst the Sabines between the peace party and the war party brought an accession of strength to the Romans. Attius Clausus, who was afterwards known in Rome as Appius Claudius, was an advocate for peace, but, unable to maintain his ground against the opposing faction, who were stirring up war, he fled to Rome with a large body of clients. They were admitted to the citizenship and received a grant of land lying beyond the Anio. They were called the Old Claudian tribe, and their numbers were added to by fresh tribesmen from that district.” (Livy, 2.16.)