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Chapter 2
Explaining the Social World: How do
We Know?
The development of
sociology as a science
 Prior to the 19th century religion was a
strong influence on knowledge
 19th century philosophers helped create
the modern way of studying science
Conditions that led to the
rise of sociology
 The Industrial Revolution
 The French Revolution
 European Imperialism (and exposure to
other cultures)
 Advances in the natural sciences
August Comte
 Coined the term “sociology”
 Called for systematic data collection and
objective analysis
 Asked “What holds society together?”
(social statics or structure) and “Why is
there change in society?” (social
dynamics or process)
Assumptions of Science
 There is a real physical world that can be
studied systematically
 There is order in the world resulting from
causes and effects
 Empirical tests allow us to gain knowledge of
the world
 Scientific knowledge must be based on
measurable phenomena
 Science is rooted in objectivity
Theories
 Statements regarding how facts are related to
each other and the connection between them
 The level of analysis and theory help determine
the method used to measure the social
phenomena
 E.G., “Childhood experiences have an impact
on career choices”
Two types of reasoning
 Deductive- moving from general theories
to specific hypotheses
 Hypotheses- educated guesses based on
theories (e.g., “People who experienced
hospital stays as children will be more likely
to pursue careers in health care”)
 Inductive- moving from specific data
(facts) to general theories
Steps in the Research
Process
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Planning the study
Designing the research methods
Doing the analysis
Drawing conclusions
Planning a study
 Define the problem clearly
 Find out what is already known about the
topic
 Formulate hypotheses
 Operationalize variables
 E.G., “hospital stay”= one or more overnight
stays in a hospital as a patient while under
the age of 16
 Ways that two concepts can be related
 Correlation
 Cause and effect
 Independent variable- the cause of change
 Dependent variable- the variable that changes
 Time dimension necessary
 Spurious relationship
 Control variables help eliminate the possibility of
a spurious relationship
Designing the research
methods
 Methods depend upon the level of
analysis, the theory, and the research
question
 The value of the study depends upon the
quality of the data collected
 Survey method
 Interview- conducted by speaking with
respondents directly
 Questionnaire- respondents answer in
writing
 Open-ended questions- allow the respondent to
answer however they wish
 Close-ended questions- force the respondents to
choose from among a set of predetermined
responses
 Field studies/observational methodssystematic, planned observations of
social interactions
 Detached/non-participant- the researcher
merely observes
 Participant observation- the researcher
participates in the activity being studied
 Research effects- the group may be altered by
the presence of the researcher
 Ethnography- a field study that involves self
reflection; the findings guide the future methods
and observations
 Controlled experiments- all variables are
controlled except the ones being studied
 Control group- subjects who are not
exposed to the treatment
 Experimental group- subjects who are
exposed to the treatment
 Allow for the examination of true cause and
effect, but cannot be used to study many
sociological questions, research effects may
result, and it is unethical to introduce many
variables into the laboratory
 Existing sources- using pre-existing
materials in a new way
 Secondary analysis- Using data that has
already been collected for other studies
 Data may not be representative, may not directly
answer the researcher’s questions, and any
problems in the original data will persist in the
new study
 Content analysis- systematic categorization
and recording of information from written or
recorded sources
 Unobtrusive, inexpensive, and easy to do
 Triangulation- the use of multiple methods of
research to enhance the accuracy of the
findings
Content
Analysis
Triangulation
Survey
Research
Participant
Observation
Selecting a sample
 Sample- a small group of people who are
systematically chosen to represent the
larger population
 Representative- accurately reflects the
group being studied
 Random- every person in the population has
an equal chance of being selected
 Non-representative- cannot be generalized
to the larger population
Doing the analysis and
drawing conclusions
 Data is interpreted
 Results are discussed and conclusions
are drawn about whether the hypotheses
are supported
 Findings must be replicable
 Each study gets us closer to an accurate
understanding of the social world
Ethical issues in social
research
 Sociologists must ensure that subjects
are not harmed in any way and that their
confidentiality is protected
 The subjects must provide informed
consent
 Human subjects boards at universities
and research institutions help protect
subjects
Sociology’s major
theoretical perspectives
 Theoretical perspective- a basic view of
society that:
 Guides sociologists’ ideas and research
 Helps them understand social behavior
 Helps develop explanations of organized
social patterns and their relationships
 Can be micro- or macro- level (all can be
used at the meso level)
Symbolic Interactionism
 Level: micro to meso
 Main ideas: through
interactions and symbols,
we socially construct our
worlds. These
constructions help us
decide how to act and are
dependent upon our
social positions
 Key theorists: Mead, the
Iowa School, Weber
 Main criticisms: neglects
macro-structures; difficult
to study concepts like “the
mind” and “the self”
Rational Choice Theory
 Level: micro to meso
 Main ideas: people make
choices based on utilitarian
factors motivated by self
interest; attempt to maximize
rewards and minimize costs
 Main criticisms: macro-level
and internal processes given
little attention; challenge of
the idea that human behavior
is always self-centered or
utilitarian; cannot explain
altruistic behavior
Structural-functionalism
 Level: meso to macro
 Main ideas: society is
primarily stable and orderly;
all parts of the system are
interrelated and necessary
for society’s function
 Key theorists: Comte,
Durkheim, Parsons
 Main criticisms: Fails to
explain change in society;
assumes conflict is harmful
(but it can actually lead to
greater stability); just
because a system seems
stable does not mean that it
is equitable
Conflict Theory
 Level: meso to macro
 Main ideas: conflict underlies all
social relations because of
injustice in society; social change
is desirable, especially when it
can lead to greater equality; the
powerful impose their values and
beliefs on the weaker
 Key theorists: Marx, DuBois,
Dahrendorf, Simmel, Coser,
Weber
 Main criticisms: micro-level not
explained; difficult to test
empirically; not effective in
explaining cohesion and
cooperation
Feminist Theory
 Level: micro to meso to macro
 Main ideas: women are disadvantaged by the
hierarchical way society is organized; sociology
has traditionally been male dominated; feminist
theory is rooted in conflict and symbolic
interactionism
 Main criticisms: the theory should address
the intersection of race, class, and gender
Using multiple theoretical
perspectives
 Desirable because each theory makes its
own contribution