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Basic Principles of Animal Form
& Function
Chapter 40
Jay Swan
Cincinnati, Ohio
Anatomy & Physiology
• Anatomy
– Biological form
• Physiology
– Biological function
• Why do animals have such various
appearances when they have such similar
demands placed on them?
Physical constraints
• Water
– Shapes of animals that are swimmers
– Why streamlined?
• Size
– Size of skeleton
– Size of muscles
– Relation to speed of organism
Exchange with the environment
 Rate of exchange
proportional to surface
area
 Amount of materials
that must be exchanged
is proportional to
volume
 Differences in
unicellular vs.
multicellular organisms
 Interstitial fluid
Fig. 40-4
External environment
CO2
Food
O2
Mouth
Respiratory
system
0.5 cm
50 µm
Animal
body
Lung tissue
Nutrients
Heart
Cells
Circulatory
system
10 µm
Interstitial
fluid
Digestive
system
Excretory
system
Lining of small intestine
Kidney tubules
Anus
Unabsorbed
matter (feces)
Metabolic waste products
(nitrogenous waste)
Hierarchical Organization
 Cells
Hierarchical Organization
 Cells
 Tissues
Hierarchical Organization
 Cells
 Tissues
 Organs
Hierarchical Organization
 Cells
 Tissues
 Organs
 Organ System
 Digestive
 Immune
 Reproductive
 Muscular
Circulatory
Excretory
Nervous
Integumentary
Respiratory
Endocrine
Skeletal
Hierarchical Organization
 Cells
 Tissues
 Organs
 Organ System
 Digestive
Circulatory
Respiratory
 Immune
Excretory
Endocrine
 Reproductive Nervous
Skeletal
 Muscular
Integumentary
 Organism
Epithelial Tissue
 Sheets of tightly packed cells
 Cells joined tightly together with little material
between them
 Functions
 Protection
 Absorption or secretion of chemicals
 Lining of organs
 Free surface
 Exposed to air or fluid
 Basement membrane
 Extracellular matrix that cells at base of barrier are
attached
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Cuboidal
epithelium
Simple
columnar
epithelium
Pseudostratified
ciliated
columnar
epithelium
Stratified
squamous
epithelium
Simple
squamous
epithelium
Connective Tissue
• Cells spread out scattered through extracellular matrix
– Substances secreted by connective tissue cells
– Web of fibers embedded in foundation
• Structure
– Protein
• Function
– Bind and support other cells
• Fibroblasts
– Secrete protein of extracellular fibers
• Macrophages
– Engulf bacteria & dead cells
– Defense
Fig. 40-5c
Connective Tissue
Connective
Tissue
Loose
Collagenous fiber
connective
tissue
Cartilage
Elastic fiber
Chondroitin
sulfate
Nuclei
Fat droplets
Adipose
tissue
Osteon
150 µm
Fibrous
connective
tissue
30 µm
100 µm
120 µm
Chondrocytes
White blood cells
Blood
55 µm
700 µm
Bone
Central canal
Plasma
Red blood
cells
Muscle Tissue
 Contract when stimulated
 Contractile proteins
 Actin & myosin
 Skeletal muscle
 Voluntary muscle
 Striated
 Cardiac muscle
 Heart
 Striated, intercalated discs
 Involuntary
 Smooth muscle
 No striations
 Lines walls of organs
 Involuntary
Fig. 40-5j
Muscle Tissue
Multiple
nuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
Skeletal
muscle
Nucleus
100 µm
Intercalated
disk
50 µm
Cardiac muscle
Nucleus
Smooth
muscle
Muscle
fibers
25 µm
Nervous Tissue
 Receives stimulus and transmits signals
 Glial cells
 Nourish, insulate, replenish neurons
 Neuron
 Nerve cell
 Cell body with 2 or more extensions
 Axons
 Transmit signals
 Dendrites
 Receive signals
Fig. 40-5n
Nervous Tissue
40 µm
Dendrites
Cell body
Glial cells
Axon
Neuron
Axons
Blood vessel
15 µm
Coordination and Control in
Animals
• Endocrine System
– Signaling molecules in bloodstream
– Coordinates gradual changes
• Growth, development, reproduction, digestion
– Hormones
• Only picked up by cells with the correct receptors
• Slow acting but long lasting
Coordination and Control in
Animals
• Endocrine System
– Signaling molecules in bloodstream
– Coordinates gradual changes
• Growth, development, reproduction, digestion
– Hormones
• Only picked up by cells with the correct receptors
• Slow acting but long lasting
• Nervous System
– Impulse travels along target cell only
– Transmission is very fast and short lasting
– Immediate response
• Locomotion, behavior
Homeostasis
• Negative feedback
– Change in environment triggers control
mechanism to turn off stimulus
– Prevent small changes to become big problems
– Most body processes
• Sweating
Homeostasis
• Negative feedback
– Change in environment triggers control
mechanism to turn off stimulus
– Prevent small changes to become big problems
– Most body processes
• Sweating
• Positive feedback
– Change in environment triggers control
mechanism to increase stimulus
– Childbirth
Fig. 40-UN1
Homeostasis
Response/effector
Stimulus:
Perturbation/stress
Control center
Sensor/receptor
Thermoregulation
• Five general adaptations help animals
thermoregulate:
– Insulation
– Circulatory adaptations
– Cooling by evaporative heat loss
– Behavioral responses
– Adjusting metabolic heat production
Fig. 40-12
Canada goose
Bottlenose
dolphin
Blood flow
Artery Vein
Vein
Artery
35ºC
33º
30º
27º
20º
18º
10º
9º
Metabolic Rate
 Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of
time
 Measured in calories or Joules
 Calculated – heat loss, O2 consumed, CO2
produced, food consumption
Metabolic Rate
 Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of
time
 Measured in calories or Joules
 Calculated – heat loss, O2 consumed, CO2
produced, food consumption
 Endothermic
 Warm-blooded
 Heat generated by metabolism
 Requires lots of energy
Metabolic Rate
 Amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time
 Measured in calories or Joules
 Calculated – heat loss, O2 consumed, CO2
produced, food consumption
 Endothermic
 Warm-blooded
 Heat generated by metabolism
 Requires lots of energy
 Exothermic
 Cold-blooded
 Requires less energy
 Incapable of intense activity for long period of time
Fig. 40-17
External
environment
Animal
body
Organic molecules
in food
Digestion and
absorption
Heat
Energy lost
in feces
Nutrient molecules
in body cells
Carbon
skeletons
Cellular
respiration
Energy lost in
nitrogenous
waste
Heat
ATP
Biosynthesis
Cellular
work
Heat
Heat
Fig. 40-20
Annual energy expenditure (kcal/hr)
Endotherms
Reproduction
800,000
Basal
(standard)
metabolism
Ectotherm
Thermoregulation
Growth
Activity
340,000
4,000
60-kg female human
from temperate climate
4-kg male Adélie penguin
from Antarctica (brooding)
0.025-kg female deer mouse
from temperate
North America
8,000
4-kg female eastern
indigo snake
Metabolic rate (cont)
 Metabolic rate is inversely proportional to
body size
 Basal metabolic rate
 Metabolic rate of nongrowing endotherm at rest,
empty stomach, no stress
 Human average = 1600 – 1800 kCal per day for
males; 1300-1500 kCal per day for females
 Standard metabolic rate
 Metabolic rate of resting, fasting, non-stressed
ectotherm
 Alligator = 60 kCal per day
Metabolic Rate (cont)
• Maximum metabolic rate = peak activity
times
• Maximum rate = inversely proportional to
duration of activity
• Sustained activity depends on ATP supply
and respiration rate
• Age, sex, size, temperature, quality &
quantity of food, activity level, oxygen
availability, hormonal balance, time of day
all affect metabolic rate
Fig. 40-19
103
BMR (L O2/hr) (Iog scale)
Elephant
Horse
102
Human
Sheep
10
Cat
Dog
1
10–1
Rat
Ground squirrel
Shrew
Mouse
Harvest mouse
10–2
10–3
10–2
10
10–1
1
102
Body mass (kg) (log scale)
103
(a) Relationship of BMR to body size
8
Shrew
BMR (L O2/hr) (per kg)
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Harvest mouse
Mouse
Rat
Sheep
Cat
Dog
Human Elephant
Horse
Ground squirrel
0
10–3 10–2
102
10–1
1
10
Body mass (kg) (log scale)
103
(b) Relationship of BMR per kilogram of body mass to body size