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TAKS biology review 1. Many times the answers are in the question itself: • Underline key words • Ignore extra information that doesn’t help B Reading graphs & charts: the answer is there! total volume: 2.3 kg most precise balance that can hold 2.3 kg: W read question, evaluate graph, each statement graph shows heart rate variation according to temperature “well” is ambiguous, not what graph shows not what graph shows graph shows doubling during temperature change graph does not show mutation has to do with water being stored & not lost: DESERT we organize the world by “complexity” tissues are made of cells, etc. Alive Not Alive Organisms Organ systems Organs Tissues Cells Organelles Molecules Atoms Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons Which is more complex, a bacteria or a frog? “Complexity” in biology is talking about number of organ systems, specialized tissues. Not about how hard it is to remember!! the FROG is more complex (with more organ systems) than a bacteria! Cells & cell theory: Cell Theory states: • All living things are made of cells • Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in organisms. • All cells come from pre-existing cells. • Cells contain organelles with specialized functions Cell as a City: label with names & functions • Cell as a City! General Cell Anatomy Cell wall: made of cellulose Membrane : controls entry & exit Nucleus: instruction center DNA: instructions Endoplasmic Reticulum: hold ribosomes that make protein City wall: protects Fence: controls entry & exit City hall: instruction center City records: instructions Factories: hold machines to make stuff Ribosomes: make proteins Machines: that make stuff General Cell Anatomy Vacuole: stores Membrane : controls entry & exit Lysosome: Nucleus: instruction center Breaks down DNA: instructions & Recycles Endoplasmic Reticulum: hold Chloroplasts: solar ribosomes that make protein Vessicle: carrying Ribosomes: make proteins • Cell as a City! Warehouse Recycling Ctr: Breaks down & Recycles Factories: hold machines to Solar power plants make stuff Fence: controls entry & exit City hall: instruction center City records: instructions Truck: carrying Machines: that make stuff Mitochondria: make energy Power plants: make energy Golgi: package and ship proteins Post office: package and ship Prokaryotic Cells • Simple cellular organization with no nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles. • Example: Bacteria • Diseases caused by bacteria: Cholera, diphtheria, Dysentery, Tetanus, MRSA, Strep Throat, Tooth Decay. Eukaryotic Cells Domain: Eukarya Found in 4 kingdoms • Protista • Fungi • Plantae • Animalia (Cell Shown) Ribosomes Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis… a.k.a. translation Polypeptide chain Ribosomes are Not membrane-bound Bacteria have them Too! What is unique to: Animal Cells: • Lysosomes – contain digestive enzymes. • Centrioles – used in cellular division. Plant Cells: • Chloroplast – site of photosynthesis • Cell Wall – formed of proteins and cellulose and lies outside of the plasma membrane • Vacuole – huge storage compartment for water and starch Questions for you to answer #1 1. What is a difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes? A. Eukaryotes have a nuclear membrane and therefore a nucleus. B. Organelles are found only in prokaryotes. C. The cells of prokaryotes only contain cytoplasm. D. Prokaryotes contain an endoplasmic reticulum. Question 2 A disease not caused by bacteria A. B. C. D. Tetanus Strep Throat Dysentery HIV Question 3 Match the function to the organelle: Ribosome A. Packaging Mitochondria B. Lipid Synthesis Smooth ER C. Protein Synthesis Golgi Apparatus D. Cellular Respiration Membrane Structure: Phospholipid Bilayer Glycoproteins play an important role in cellular recognition and immune responses. They help stabilize the membrane structure. Some proteins, called peripheral proteins, are stuck to the surface of the membrane. Glycolipids act as surface receptors and stabilize the membrane. Some proteins completely penetrate the phospholipid layer, allow specific molecules through. In’N’Out: No energy required: Passive Transport – relies on thermal energy of matter and the cell does not work (No energy “ATP” used – High Concentration to Low Concentration). Four types: • Diffusion (usually solutes) • Facilitated Diffusion – membrane enzyme carries the substance • Osmosis – diffusion of WATER across a semi-permeable membrane (usually solvent due to solute concentration) • Bulk flow – movement of fluids affected by pressure. ACTIVE transport: uses ATP (energy)! • endo cytosis • (to inside) • exo cytosis • (to outside) Active Transport: uses ATP to move stuff through channels.... sodium potassium PUMP Question 5 Which of the following is an example of osmosis? A. The movement of ions from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration. B. The movement of ions from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration. C. The movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration. D. The movement of water from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration. Water and nutrients (via the roots) Photosynthesis Sugar (to rest of the plant) Sunlight Carbon dioxide gas (through stomata) Oxygen gas (through stomata) 6CO2 + 12H2O Light Chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O Photosynthesis Equation: “follow the money”, I mean “carbon” Photosynthesis – First Stage Light Dependent Reactions: The captured light energy is transferred to electrons that come from H2O and O2 is the byproduct. ATP is produced Second Stage of Photosynthesis: Light Independent Reactions: Energized electrons are transferred to CO2 to form glucose in the Calvin-Benson Cycle. Autotrophs use the energy from the sun to make organic compounds and are the basis of all terrestrial and most aquatic food chains. Cellular Respiration • Cells use OXYGEN to break down SUGAR • to make: ATP Cellular Respiration Highly energized electrons stored temporarily in glucose are removed (oxidation reactions) in a stepwise fashion to maximize energy captured at each step (and avoid blowing things up). All organisms must use energy and the energy is in the form of ATP. ATP • like a chemical battery • it can store energy • it can release energy when last P- bond is broken Electrons carried via NADH GLYCOLYSIS The cytoplasm Glucose ➙Pyruvate Cristae Electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 Mitochondrial matrix KREBS CYCLE Matrix of the mitochondria ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN AND OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION The inner membrane of the mitochondria Mitochondrion ATP ATP ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation Substrate-level phosphorylation Oxidative phosphorylation C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O 6CO2 + 12H2O Idea: “Respiration” glucose co2 34 ATP Oxygen What if there’s not enough oxygen? • is there another way to make ATP? • Glycolysis then.... • Fermentation! Lactic Acid Fermentation Pyruvate Skeletal muscle Alcohol Fermentation Pyruvate Relationship between Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration Question 7 What two products of photosynthesis are reactants in cellular respiration? A. Glucose and oxygen B. Glucose and water C. Oxygen and carbon dioxide D. Sunlight and oxygen Question 9 Which stage of cellular respiration occurs in all organisms under anaerobic conditions? A. Glycolysis B. Krebs Cycle C. Electron Transport Chain D. Calvin Cycle Question 10 What organelles are the locations of the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration? A. Chloroplast and Ribosomes B. Chloroplast and Golgi Apparatus C. Chloroplast and Endoplasmic Reticulum D. Chloroplast and Mitochondria nucleic acids Structural differences between DNA and RNA include: DNA RNA Strands Double Single Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose Bases Guanine Guanine Cytosine Thymine Adenine Cytosine Uracil Adenine DNA DNA Replication (Semiconservative) • allows cells to pass genetic information on to offspring. • Errors in the process results in mutations. • Remember A – T and G – C. Mnemonic The letter “C” fits into The letter “G”… like they are cuddling. Question 11 The functional unit of both DNA and RNA is the nucleotide. What comprises the nucleotide? A. Sugar, Protein, and a Base B. Sugar, Phosphate, and a Base C. Sugar, Protein, and a Ribosome D. Sugar, Phosphate, and a Ribosome Question 12 Which sequence of bases will pair with the base sequence CTAGGATTC in a DNA molecule? A. GATCCTAAG B. ATGTTGCCA C. CTAGGATTC D. GAATCCTAG Protein Synthesis – 2 steps Transcription – nucleus DNA mRNA Translation – cytoplasm mRNA rRNA tRNA protein DNA mRNA protein trait GENE to PROTEIN RELATIONSHIP: 3 bases = a codon = an amino acid Functional protein This polypeptide chain forms the other part of the functional protein. Polypeptide chain Amino acid This polypeptide chain forms one part of the functional protein. Polypeptide chain TAC on the template DNA strand Protein synthesi transcription and translation A triplet codes for one amino acid START Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet STOP START Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet Triplet 5' Gene Transcription unit STOP 3' DNA Gene Three nucleotides make up a triplet Nucleotide In models of nucleic acids, nucleotides are denoted by their Transcription occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. DNA nucleotide sequence mRNA Steps: 1. Messenger (m)RNA is copied from DNA, by unzipping a portion of the DNA helix that corresponds to a gene using RNA polymerase. 2. Only one side of the DNA will be transcribed, and nucleotides with the proper bases (A with U and C with G) will be sequenced to build mRNA. 3. mRNA leaves the nucleus. Translation – occurs in the cytoplasm with ribosomes forming proteins mRNA + rRNA + tRNA + amino acids = proteins Steps: 1. mRNA attached to a ribosome 2. tRNA molecules pick up an amino acid and carry them to the ribosome. 3. tRNA anticodon and the mRNA codon join together 4. As the amino acid chain lengthens enzymes form peptide bonds between amino acids. 5. The tRNA exit to locate a new amino acid and this process continues until the stop codon is reached. Question 15 DNA RNA Protein (= trait) In the diagram above, what is the function of RNA? A. Carry the set of instructions that replicates another DNA molecule in the protein chain. B. Carry the set of instructions that places amino acids in the protein chain in the correct order. C. Carry the set of instructions that places phosphate molecules in the protein chain. D. Carry the set of instructions that bonds hydrogen to the protein chain Question 16 What is the process in which mRNA is coded from the DNA and in what part of an eukaryotic cell does it occur? A. Transcription, Nucleus B. Transcription, Cytoplasm C. Translation, Nucleus D. Translation, Cytoplasm Question 18 The DNA sequence, GATTACACG, would code which of the following mRNA sequence? A. CTAATGTGC B. CTUUTGTGC C. CATATGTGC D. CUAAUGUGC Question 19 What process is being shown in the diagram to the left? A. Transcription B. Translation C. Replication D. Selection Mutations Any random, permanent change in the DNA molecule. Many are harmful, some have no effect, and some benefit the organism. Nature selects those mutations that are beneficial or adaptive in organisms to help shape the course of evolution. DNA sequence: GCATACCA Types of mutations: Deletion – lost base GC*TACCA Duplication – extra copies GCATCATACCA Inversion – backwards CGATACCA Cladistics & homology Homology means “similarities” • deciding how closely things are related = cladistics comparative anatomy comparative embryology Taxonomy: naming things according to cladistics old ways: 5 Kingdom vs 6 Kingdom 5 Kingdoms: Monera (prokaryotic), Protista (eukaryotic), Fungi* (eukaryotic), Plantae* (eukaryotic), Animalia older (eukaryotic) 6Kingdoms: Eubacteria (prokaryotic), Archaebacteria (prokaryotic), Protista (eukaryotic), Fungi* (eukaryotic), Plantae* (eukaryotic), Animalia old (eukaryotic) * Cell Wall Present (Chitin in Fungi and Cellulose in Plantae) What is the difference: Monera has been split into the Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. What no Viruses? New taxonomy: 3 domains based on cell type Domain Bacteria Domain Archaea Common ancestor Domain Eukarya Eukaryotic Domain • Protists • Fungi • Plants • Animals Animals: invertebrates • Porifera (sponges) • Cnidaria (stingers) • Platyhelminthes (flatworms) • Nematoda (roundworms) • Annelida (earthworms & leeches) • Arthropoda (joined legs) • Mollusca (snails, octopus) • Echidnoderms (starfish) Animals: chordates do have a spinal cord • Fish (bony & cartilage skeletons) cartilage = sharks & rays GILLS for respiratory system • Amphibian lungs & skin for respiratory system • Reptiles can live in dry environment • Birds (Aves) have 4 chambered heart • Mammals 4 chambered heart, feed young milk, give birth to live young Rhinovirus More than 100 rhinoviruses have been identified. They are the most common cause of colds. HIV The human immuno- deficiency virus (HIV) causes AIDS. Papillomavirus This virus causes the formation of warts in humans. Herpesvirus Nearly 100 herpesviruses are known. Types found in humans include those that cause cold sores, chickenpox, shingles, and genital herpes. VIRUSES Lyssavirus This bullet-shaped virus causes rabies. Influenzavirus This virus causes influenza in humans. Rapid mutation has resulted in many strains. Hepatitis viruses The viruses responsible for hepatitis A, B and C. Filovirus This newly emerged group of viruses, include the dangerous Marburg and Ebola. Viruses • Viruses are either a segment of DNA or RNA with a protein coat and are acellular. (Does not meet the life processes… it is not alive… no cells) • Infection pattern of viruses is either lytic or lysogenic. Lysogenic pattern has a dormancy stage. • Vaccinations is the most effective defense against viral infections. Antibiotics CANNOT treat viral infections. • Viral Diseases: AIDS, Chickenpox, Common Cold, Hepatitis, Flu, Measles, Mumps, Polio, Rabies, Smallpox, Warts, Avian Flu, and West Nile Virus. • Viruses that infect bacteria are Bacteriophage. Lytic viruses are like Terrorists; they Destroy the cell as They replicate by the Thousands and leave. Virus Life Cycle Lysogenic viruses Are like sleeper cells; They hang out and Replicate invisibly Do vaccines work on viruses? • Vaccines are a piece of protein from the virus coat, or a weaker or empty virus, in a shot that the doctor gives you. • The bits train your immune system to recognize and attack when they see that protein or virus. • But some viruses change proteins too quickly for us to keep up… like colds, and HIV Question 21 How are viruses different from living organisms? A. Viruses have no DNA or RNA. B. Viruses use host cells to reproduce. C. Viruses contain no proteins. D. Viruses can be killed by antibiotics. Ecology • Autotrophs or producers are organisms that capture sunlight or other organic molecules to form an organic molecules. Photosynthesis. Examples: plants, algae, and bacteria • Heterotrophs or consumers are organisms that rely on other organisms for their energy(food). Examples: Fungi, bacteria, animals. Heterotrophs Relationship • Herbivore – Animals that eat only plants (Cows) • Carnivore – Animals that eat only other animals (Lions) • Omnivore – Animals that eat both plants and animals (Humans, Wolves, Bears) • Detritivores – obtain energy from dead organisms and organic waste. (Earthworms and fungi) • Decomposers – are detritivores that cause decay. (Bacteria and fungi) Trophic Pyramid: energy levels Food Web: Food web questions: the answer is usually in the food web itself. Mice eat both plants (grass, grain, berries) and meat (grasshoppers) the details give you the answer! Energy and Matter in the Ecosystem Matter is recycled through the ecosystem, where energy is lost between the trophic levels. 90% of energy is lost between each trophic level! • Food Chain – shows direct relationships PlantsGrasshopperBlue Jay Producer Primary Consumer Secondary Consumer (3 trophic levels) • Food Web – interrelationships within an ecosystem between producers, consumers, and decomposers. Symbiosis Relatioships Symbiosis is a close relationship between two organisms that are different species. • Commensalism – one organism benefits and the other does not benefit nor is harmed. Ex:Clown Fish and Sea Anemone (Finding Nemo) • Mutualism – both species benefit. Ex: Lichens (which are fungi and algae) • Parasitism – one organism lives directly on other organism. Ex: Tapeworm and Humans • Predation – one organism captures and eating another. Ex: Gazelle and Lion Biogeochemical Cycles Water Cycle – Evaporation and Transpiration, Condensation, Precipitation, and Runoff Carbon Cycle – Photosynthesis/Cell Respiration Nitrogen Cycle – Nitrogen fixation, Nitrification, Assimilation, and Denitrification Human Systems Integumentary System Structures: Skin, Hair, and Nails Function: Protects the body from injury, defense against pathogens, regulate body temperature, and prevents the body from drying out. Skeletal System Structures: Bones, joints Function: Provide protection to internal organs and work with muscles for movement. Tendons attach muscles to bone. Ligaments connect bone to bone and limit the movement of bones. Joints include Ball and socket(hip), pivot(neck), hinge(fingers), gliding(wrist), and saddle(thumb only). Circulatory System Structures: Heart, Blood, and Blood Vessels. Heart – 4 chambers, atrium(2) receives blood and ventricles(2) pump blood Blood – composed of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets Blood Vessels – arteries, veins, and capillaries Function: connects all organs in the body and transports material throughout the body. Pulmonary – Heart to Lungs & Systemic – Heart to Body The Heart: 4 Chambers = high efficiency • Atria: – Entrance • Ventricle: – Exit Chamber – Power Pumper Respiratory System Structures: Diaphragm, Lungs, Pharynx, Trachea, Bronchi, and Alveoli Function: Works with the circulatory system to transport oxygen to the cells of the body for cellular respiration and the removal of carbon dioxide. Pathway of air: Pharynx Larynx TracheaBronchi Bronchioles Alveoli Exchange occurs between the alveoli and capillaries Destination: Lungs!! • It’s all about surface area! • Your lungs have enough surface area to cover a tennis court! Digestive System Structures and Pathway: Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestines, Large Intestines, and Rectum. Accessory Organs: Liver, Pancreas, and Salivary Glands. Function: To break down large organic molecules in food to usable smaller molecules. Steps: Ingestion Digestion Absorption Elimination Excretory System Structure: Kidney, Ureters, Bladder, and Urethra Function: The removal (excretion) of water soluble NITROGENOUS waste in blood from chemical activities in cells including ammonia from metabolism of proteins. Two Steps: Filtration and Reabsorption Nervous System Structures: Neurons, brain, and spinal cord. Function: Controls and coordinates functions throughout the body. Uses both chemical and electrical signals. Electrical impulse travels: DendriteCell Body Axon (neurotransmitter) Dendrite Neurotransmitters are chemical/protein messengers Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord Peripheral Nervous System - Nerves Immune System Function: To protect the body from disease causing agents (pathogens). Nonspecific defenses: Skin, Inflammatory response, histamine, tears, and increase in temperature. White Blood Cells – 3 types – Neutrophils, Macrophages, and Killer T Cells Endocrine System Structure: Glands and Hormones Function: Regulate the activity of the body using hormones. Endocrine glands produce hormones and are secrete directly into the blood or fluid around cells. Gland and Hormone pairs: Adrenal–adrenaline, Ovaries-estrogen, Pancreas–insulin, and Testes–testerone Reproductive System Function: Reproduction of offspring Male Reproductive System: Testes produces sperm (haploid cell 23 chromosomes) Female Reproductive System: Ovaries produce ova (haploid cell 23 chromosomes), fallopian tube (fertilization occurs) and uterus (embryo development). Basic Organs of Plants • • • • Roots – Anchorage and Absorption Stems – Supports leaves Leaves – Photosynthesis Flowers – Reproduction ( found only in Angiosperms) Nonvascular Plants Nonvascular plants lack roots, stems, and leaves. Examples: Mosses, Liverworts, and Hornworts Vascular Plants Vascular tissues are xylem and phloem. (much like our vessels in our bodies) Xylem transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves for photosynthesis. Phloem transports sap (sugar and water) from the leaves to other areas of the plants. Vascular Plants include Gymnosperms (pine trees) and Angiosperms (flowering plants).