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Learning www.ablongman.com/lefton9e This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: • Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; • Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; • Any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 by Pearson Education. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Further reproduction is prohibited without written permission from the publisher. Learning • A relatively permanent change in an organism – The result of experience – Exhibited in behavior Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Learning I. Classical Conditioning II. Operant Conditioning III. Cognitive Learning IV. Biological Basis for Learning Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Classical Conditioning – Conditioning • A systematic procedure through which associations and responses to specific stimuli are learned • One of the simplest forms of learning – Reflexes • automatic behavior • occur without prior learning Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Basics of Classical Conditioning • Conditioning versus reflexes – Conditioning does require learning • Learned association between a neutral stimulus and a stimulus that evokes a reflex Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936) – Studied digestion in dogs – Discovered Classical (or Pavlovian) Conditioning – An originally neutral stimulus, through repeated pairings with a stimulus that naturally produces a response, comes to elicit a similar or identical response Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Classical Conditioning Terms and Procedures 1. Unconditioned Stimulus • The stimulus that automatically produces a response • Unlearned • E.g., Food 2. Unconditioned Response • Automatic, involuntary response to the unconditioned stimulus • E.g., Salivation Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Terms and Procedures • Procedure – Present a neutral stimulus immediately before an unconditioned stimulus Neutral Stimulus: BELL Unconditioned Stimulus: FOOD Unconditioned Response: SALIVATION Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Terms and Procedures • Procedure – Repeat many, many times – Remove the unconditioned stimulus: Stimulus: BELL Response: SALIVATION – Original stimulus no longer neutral! Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Terms and Procedures Conditioned Stimulus – A previously neutral stimulus that, through repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes capable of eliciting a response – E.g., Bell Conditioned Response – The response to the Conditioned Stimulus – E.g., Salivating Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Classical Conditioning • Conditioning does not occur immediately – Occurs gradually over many repeated pairings – This process through which the conditioned stimulus becomes associated with a learned response is called an acquisition process Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Classical Conditioning in Humans • Many types of responses can be conditioned in humans • Conditioning can occur – Without our awareness – For pleasant and unpleasant reactions Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Classical Conditioning in Humans • Little Albert – John Watson and Rosalie Raynor (1920) White Rat Frightening, loud noise Fear – After many pairings: White Rat Fear Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Classical Conditioning in Humans • Little Albert – This type of learning is probably the source for most fear and anxiety in children Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Higher-Order Conditioning • The process by which a neutral stimulus takes on conditioned properties through pairing with a conditioned stimulus • Permits increasingly remote associations Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Key Variables in Classical Conditioning Strength, timing and frequency a. Strength of the unconditioned stimulus b. Timing of the unconditioned stimulus c. Frequency of Pairings Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Key Variables in Classical Conditioning Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery a. Extinction • Process by which the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits the unconditioned response b. Spontaneous Recovery • When an extinguished conditioned response reappears Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Key Variables in Classical Conditioning Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination a. Stimulus Generalization • When a conditioned response occurs in response to a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus • Probably explains how some phobias develop b. Stimulus Discrimination • An organism learns to respond only to the specific conditioned stimulus Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Classical Conditioning in Daily Life The Garcia Effect – John Garcia (Garcia & Koelling, 1971) • Conditioned taste aversion – Two startling findings • Could occur even if nausea was induced several hours after food or drink was consumed • Not all stimuli were equally easily associated Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 The Garcia Effect • Conditioned taste aversion can occur after only one pairing – Survival value of quickly learning to avoid foods that make us sick Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 The Garcia Effect • Practical applications – Preventing appetite loss with chemotherapy patients Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Classical Conditioning in Daily Life Learning and chemotherapy – Nausea can be conditioned to occur Conditioned stimulus: Unconditioned Stimulus: FOOD CHEMOTHERAPY Conditioned stimulus: FOOD Unconditioned Response: NAUSEA Conditioned Response: NAUSEA Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Pavlov’s Understanding Reinterpreted • Pavlov thought in terms of simple associations between paired stimuli • Today’s researchers are considering how imagined stimuli (such as thoughts) can evoke a response Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Operant Conditioning • Differences from classical conditioning – Conditioned behavior is voluntary, not reflexive – Consequence follows, rather than coexists with or precedes a behavior Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Operant Conditioning The Pioneers 1. E. L. Thorndike (1874 – 1949) • Instrumental conditioning 2. B. F. Skinner (1904 – 1990) – Three types of consequences • Behavior is ignored • Behavior is rewarded (reinforced) • Behavior is punished Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Reinforcers • A reinforcer is any event that increases the likelihood of a behavior Reinforcement Strategies a. Positive Reinforcement – The presentation of a stimulus after a behavior that increases the likelihood that response will recur – Example: Receiving a dollar for cleaning your room Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Reinforcement Strategies Negative Reinforcement – The removal of a stimulus after a particular response to increase the likelihood the response will recur – The stimulus removed is usually unpleasant – Example: Taking an aspirin to get rid of a headache Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Negative Reinforcement • Another example: – Apologizing after being sent to time-out • Apologizing removes being confined to your room • This is also an example of escape conditioning • May lead to avoidance conditioning Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Reinforcement The Nature of Reinforcers – Two types of reinforcers a. Primary Reinforcer – Examples: Food, water, pain avoidance b. Secondary Reinforcer – Examples: Money, good grades Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Operant Conditioning The Skinner Box and Shaping – Skinner box • Animal randomly emits behaviors • Target behaviors are reinforced – Shaping • The selective reinforcement of behaviors that gradually approach (approximate) a desired response • Sometimes called the method of successive approximations Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Operant Conditioning Punishment – Types of Punishment a. Positive punishment – A stimulus is presented in order to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated – Example: Getting yelled at for hitting your sister Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Types of Punishment Negative Punishment – A stimulus is removed in order to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated – Example: Losing your car after getting into a wreck Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Punishment The Nature of Punishers – Two types of punishers: a. Primary punisher – Example: Pain b. Secondary punisher – Example: Losing your driver’s license Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Punishment Limitations of Punishment – Only suppresses behavior – Has social consequences – May not control behavior in the long run – Physical punishments can lead to aggression – Inconsistent punishment can lead to learned helplessness Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Key variables in Operant Conditioning Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Discrimination Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Operant Conditioning in Daily Life 1. Superstitious Behaviors 2. Intrinsically Motivated Behavior – May actually decrease if they are externally reinforced Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Cognitive Learning Observational Learning The Power of Modeling • Albert Bandura – Social learning theory – Showed that children played more aggressively after observing films with aggressive content • Observational learning can occur without being reinforced Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Observational Learning Observational Learning in Daily Life a. Gender role development b. Cultural values Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Cognitive Learning Other Types of Cognitive Learning Insight – the “aha” experience Latent Learning – Shows us a distinction between learning and performance Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 Biological Basis for Learning Electrical Brain Stimulation and Reinforcement – James Olds (1955, 1960) • Found that rats find electrical stimulation of specific brain areas in the hypothalamus to be rewarding – This brain region involves the neurotransmitter dopamine Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006