Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Albert Bandura wikipedia , lookup
Interpersonal attraction wikipedia , lookup
Fear appeal wikipedia , lookup
Group development wikipedia , lookup
Vested interest (communication theory) wikipedia , lookup
Impression formation wikipedia , lookup
False consensus effect wikipedia , lookup
Introspection illusion wikipedia , lookup
Attitude (psychology) wikipedia , lookup
Elaboration likelihood model wikipedia , lookup
Social perception wikipedia , lookup
Attribution Theory and Theories of Belief Change Attribution Theory Deals with how people perceive the causes of behavior Concerned with Causal Inferences Personal Causes vs. External Causes – Ex. “I earned an A” vs. “My teacher gave me an F” Also concerned with How people make these types of inferences Kelley’s Attribution Model “Covariation Model” Kelley suggests 3 Factors we use when making causal attributions: – Distinctiveness – whether a person’s behavior is different across situations – Consistency – looking for trends in related situations over time (light switch) – Consensus – comparing the person to how others are behaving Our ability to infer causality correctly depends on those three factors – movie theater audience member Kelley’s Attribution Model Limitations in our ability to make correct attributions come from: – Motivational Biases, Discounting/Augmenting Principles, and other Biases 3 Motivational Biases: – Self-serving bias – we alter our perceptions to protect our self-esteem/self-concept • Accept responsibility for the good, assign blame for the bad: You are in charge of renting a movie – False consensus bias – we mistakenly believe that others are like us • “everyone does it” – False uniqueness bias – we mistakenly perceive ourselves as different • Snob Appeal Kelley’s Attribution Model (cont’d) Discounting and Augmenting Principles – Considers perceived motivations of the message source – Perceived source intention is one of the most important variables in persuasion Discounting and Augmenting Principles Discounting Principle – The more possible causes there are for a behavior, the weaker the perceived viability of any single cause – For example: former President Bush saying we should vote for his son Augmenting Principle – An unexpected position from a source perceived as biased will strengthen the persuasive power of the message – Bush saying, “after serious consideration, I think you should have voted for Gore” Two other types of Bias Knowledge Bias – Deals with the source’s previous background and how this impacts their perspective – People’s expectations of the source’s position (based on this bias) can be either confirmed or disconfirmed by the source’s behavior • If I went to Catholic high school, but advocated the public education system Audience Reporting Bias – Expectations can be confirmed or disconfirmed based on the nature of the audience that the source is presenting the message to • I speak to undergraduates about parking... Registrar? – How would I confirm? Disconfirm? Related Conclusions w/respect to ads: – The believability of some product claims increase by disclaiming: “a superiority on some, but not all” product features while admitting only average performance in other features • Suggestion of throwing in one “weak” feature of a product to enhance overall credibility of the ad • Consumers tend to discount testimonials that are completely positive • WHY? Self-Perception Theory (Bem, 1972) Sometimes people observe their own behavior and then make inferences about their attitudes If people don’t possess a strong attitude, or give an issue much thought, they may infer that they approve of the behavior after engaging in it Internal and External attributions will also be used to explain their own behavior For a different approach to Attributions of Behavior… Weiner’s Attribution Model Also interested in the perceived causes of actions and behaviors Considers the following factors (internal/external): – Intention – Controllability – Stability – Locus of Control Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1981) Why study attitudes? – To gain insights into how we can change them This Reasoned Action model is useful for developing attitude change strategies because it focuses directly upon attributes that may be impacted by the source The theory predicts behavior based on the attitude toward the behavior, and the pressure to behave in a certain way TORA (cont’d) Deals with behaviors that are voluntary Predicts the likelihood of behavior by gauging behavioral intention Intention is the step between attitude and behavior… intention determines the behavior TORA (cont’d) Accordingly, Behavioral Intention is influenced by two components: – Attitude toward the behavior (Ab) – Subjective Norm (SN) TORA Model TORA: Algebraically Stated (all together now!) B BI = w1Ab+w2SN Behavior (B) is a function of () Behavioral Intention (BI), which is measured by adding Attitude toward the Behavior (Ab) to the Subjective Norm (SN) w1 and w2 are weights determining the relative importance of each term Attitude Component Attitude is a function of one’s salient beliefs about the behavior Theory claims: Attitude toward buying the car is a function of the strength by which one holds a salient belief and the evaluation of whether the consequence of that belief is positive/negative, etc. n AB = biei i=1 Where i is each consequence, and n is the total number of beliefs Implications for persuasion and Attitudes (4) Change total number of beliefs to be considered by the consumer (add new information/stress different information) Change the belief strength of receivers’ held beliefs (add new information) Change the evaluations by which receivers rate the consequences of the beliefs (emphasize the downside/upside of the behavior) Change the configuration of beliefs in order to make certain beliefs more salient (buying a PC) Subjective Norm Component Constitutes the individual’s beliefs that people who are important to him/her, think he/she should or should not perform the action in reference M SN=(NB) i(MC)I i=1 NB = normative beliefs MC = motivation to comply M = number of referents (people) Implications for persuasion and the Subjective Norm (4) Increase # of referent individuals, or salient others who advise the consumer or provide approval/disapproval of the behavior Change the strength of the normative beliefs Change the motivation to comply component (why comply? Be independent…) Change the configuration of supporters (versus distractors) who impact on the consumer’s decision (they are just jealous) Example in Advertising Source Characteristics Source Credibility Expertise (knowledge bias) Trustworthiness (audience reporting bias) McCroskey: Authoritativeness and character Berlo, Lemert and Mertz: safety factor (trustworthiness), qualification factor (expertise), and dynamism Expertise Described as: “trained, experienced, skillful, informed, authoritative, able, and intelligent” The audience expects an expert to present strong arguments—weak arguments can completely remove any influence of perceived expertise due to title, appearance, and qualifications The more change that is desired, the more expertise should be emphasized Expertise vs. Similarity Appeal When should you opt for similarity? – Select Comfort Mattress; BlockBusters; Paint Store Story Social comparison theory (natural social comparisons exist given: age, gender, occupation, etc.) – Holding “correct” attitude as a function of comparison group’s consensus • Becomes “social proof” Expertise vs. Similarity Appeal (cont’d) Similarity is more likely to be effective when: – Intent of attitude/behavior is to Satisfy personal need – Similarity Is relevant to the topic – Used to Increase liking for the speaker – The right variables are examined (age, sex…) – Source refers to attitudes (not beliefs… why does this make sense?) Trustworthiness As the topic becomes more personal, trust becomes more important Speakers who speak against their own interest (augmenting principle) Overheard messages (discounting principle) Personal Characteristics Composure: relaxed, comfortable and calm Dynamism: powerful, active, energetic, outgoing Sociability: friendly, helpful, likeable *Sometimes it is easiest to think about the ability of these qualities to persuade by imagining someone who is deficient in them * Or use the book’s Vincent the Waiter story (p. 135) Physical Attractiveness Society emphasizes beauty Attractive individuals have more confidence, are more optimistic, more fluent, and speak faster Studies show: – Jury may be more lenient to attractive criminals • But not when they used their beauty to commit the crime – Good looking men in organizations are perceived to have leadership skills, but this is not the case for women What about expertise vs. physical attractiveness? Celebrity Endorsements Only 20% of celebrity appeals work? – Is the risk worth it? LeBron and his $90mil? – Companies want to know what circumstances will make it work—therefore, you will want to know Things to know: – Effective when the receiver identifies with the celebrity… • who is Alf trying to identify with? – Children are more likely to be influenced by the “in” celebrities – • Britney and Pepsi; Christina and Coke – Match-Up Hypothesis: the public image of the celebrity and the message about the product • Joe Namath and Arthritis Opinion Leaders Two-step flow: media affect opinion leaders who then affect individuals Opinion Leaders – Tend to be better informed, talk to more people, may have more formal education, are heavy media consumers – Specific opinion leaders vary depending on the topic Theoretical Bases of Power Informational Influence – very often leads to belief/attitude/behavior change – Present new information, or new arguments (like with Affirmative Action discussion) Referent Influence – Simply due to people wanting to be associated with the source’s referent group – People can be influenced by the role model • Explains successful celebrity endorsement Expert Influence – Superior Power – Ex. Computer skills, mastery of the English lang, or excellent musicians are perceived to be experts Theoretical Bases of Power (cont’d) Legitimate Influence – When people have a “right” to impact your behavior; as a boss, parent or teacher • Key is the receiver’s belief that the source is legitimate Reward and Coercive Influences – If an agent/source can control the rewards and punishments the target/receiver receives, they can influence all of the above Improving Communicator Effectiveness Have low-credibility? Got milk? Be introduced after you speak/present your message Learn to speak proficiently using appropriate verbal and nonverbal communication modes Find common ground with the audience – Careful not to be obvious Effectively use the media – Written messages produce more thoughts about the content (why?) – Audio/Visual content produce more thoughts about the speaker (why?) – Therefore… good looking, likable, credible speakers should do it live Next Class… Predicting Group and Individual Responses! MORE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES