Download Week Two

Perception and Personality
Perception, Attribution
and Learning
The Perception Process
ATTENTION
•The Perceived
•The Perceiver
ORGANIZATION
•Patterns
•Schemas
•Scripts
PERCEPTION
Comprehending Perception
We all have a different store of knowledge.
We all therefore interpret the world around us
differently.
Understanding relies upon the speaker and his
audience having the same perception of the required
outcome.
Perception is a 'Learned
Experience'
It is the “awareness” of the external
world (or some aspect of it, through
one or more of our senses and, the
interpretation of these by our mind.
Understanding
Understanding is achieved by interpreting current
experience using past experience as a source of
reference, and establishing a context upon which to
base this new information. In other words:
We are only able to understand today in terms of, and
because of, our past experiences.
Yet, we also know that 'Today' is unlike 'Yesterday'.
We inherit Yesterday's patterns and need them to interpret
what our senses are experiencing in the present.
These patterns are simultaneously essential and yet out of
date.
How do we perceive?
We store a ‘model’ or memory of objects.
The process of perceiving involves ‘matching’
what our senses are experiencing to one of our
‘models.’
Perception is an active pattern-matching process.
We recognize the world because of our historical
store of information.
We create our own unique world, our own
interpretation of reality.
Patterns to Organize Sensations
Figure-Ground
We tend to organize sensations into figures and backgrounds.
O
X
O
X
O
X
O
X
O O
O O
O O
O
X
O
X
O
X
O
X
O
X
O
X
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
O
Similarity
We tend to group similar items. Do you see alternating rows
of O’s and X’s or columns of alternating O’s and X’s?
Proximity
We tend to group elements that are close together. How
many groupings do you see at the left?
Closure
We tend to fill in the gaps in incomplete stimuli. Do you see
a rectangle or four lines?
Continuation
We tend to organize stimuli into continuous lines or patterns.
Do you see two intersecting lines or four lines?
Simplicity
We tend to reduce stimuli to their simplest shapes or patterns.
Do you see an overlapping rectangle and triangle or a
nonstandard shaped polygon?
Therefore:
Discovering a new perception adds to the
database of patterns which already exists in
our minds.
Once existing experience has been proved
inadequate to correctly interpret an image, the
brain supplements its store of knowledge with
the new experience.
Once new experience becomes old experience,
it is often difficult to imagine the state of mind
prior to gaining this new insight.
Factors that Influence
Perception
What is the perception
process?
A process by which individuals:
Organize & interpret their sensory
impressions, in order to give
meaning to their environment.
What one perceive may be
substantially
different from reality.
Organizational Applications of
Perception
Employment Interviews
Self-fulfilling prophecies of
performance
Performance evaluations
Employee effort
Employee loyalty
Managers Should Take Five Steps to
Increase Perceptual Accuracy STEP 5
STEP 4
STEP 3
STEP 2
STEP 1
Gather
information
about
behavior &
attitudes
Check
Conclusions
Determine
if Facts or
Assumptions
Distinguish
among
Aspects of
Person’s
Behavior
Eliminate
or Reduce
Projections
Attribution
Judging what people are like and why
they do what they do.
What is someone really like?
What makes a person behave they way
s/he does?
One Makes Attributions in Three Major Steps: The
Behavior Occurs; the Person Determines if it Was
Intentional; if so, the Person Determines its Causes
BEHAVIOR
OCCURS
Observe
behavior
Was the
behavior
intentional?
What
Caused the
Intentional behavior?
Unintentional
Luck!
Chance!
Personal
Cause
Situational
Cause
Correspondent Inferences
Using acts to judge dispositions.
We make judgments about what people
are like based on what we are able to
observe of their behavior.
Many causes of behavior.
People can conceal some of their traits.
Causal Attribution of
Responsibility
Answering the question of WHY?
Kelley’s Theory of Causal Attribution
1.
Consensus
–
2.
Consistency
–
3.
Extent to which other people behave the same.
Extent to which behavior is same at other times.
Distinctiveness
–
Extent to which behavior is the same in other contexts.
Internal and External Causes of Behavior
Employee Applies
for Promotion
Employee
Receives
Promotion
Coworker
Employee Attributes
Attributes
Success to
Success to
Personal
Situational
Characteristics;
Characteristics;
Employee’s Effort
Boss’s
Supervision
Employees
Denied
Promotion
Employee
Attributes
Failure to
Situational
Characteristics;
Interviewer’s
Attitude
Coworker
Attributes
Failure to
Personal
Characteristics;
Employee’s
Personality
Making Judgments = Errors
Fundamental Attribution
Error
Actor-Observer Effect
Self-Serving Attribution
False Consensus
Stereotypes
Overcoming Bias in Social
Perception
External Causes
Know your Stereotypes
Objective Factors
Rash Judgments
The Johari Window
Known to Self Not Known to
Self
Known to
Others
Not Known to
Others
FREE/ARENA
BLIND SPOT
FACADE
UNKNOWN
How Little We Remember
Biographical Characteristics
Age
Gender
Marital Status
Birth Order
Number of Dependents
Personality Determinants
Heredity
Environment
Situation
What is Personality?
The sum total of ways in which an
individual reacts and interacts with
others,
described in terms of measurable
personality traits that a person exhibits.
Job fit -- job satisfaction!
Personality Attributes
Locus of Control
Achievement Orientation
Authoritarianism
Self-esteem
Risk Taking
Self-Monitoring
Self Efficacy
“Big Five” Dimensions
Conscientiousness
Extraversion-introversion
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Openness to Experience
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Introvert-Extrovert
where you derive your energy
Sensing-Intuitive
where you obtain your information
Thinking-Feeling
analysis & logic versus pleasing people
Judging-Perceiving
how you make a decision
Kiersey Temperament Sorter
1.In most situations are you more
deliberate than spontaneous
spontaneous than deliberate
2.Is it worse to be
a softy
hard-nosed
3.Is it better to be
just
merciful
Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type
That Focuses Attention and Presents Strengths
and Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations
Psychological Focus and
Types
Preferences
Extroversion
Focuses on
people
and things;
sociable;
outgoing
Introversion
Focuses on
thoughts
and concepts;
reflective;
inwardly directed
Strengths
Weaknesses
(if Overextended)
Good at social
interaction; enthusiastic and
confident; instigates action; open
and straightforward
Intellectual superficiality; intrusive;
lack of respect for
others’ privacy;
easily distracted
Good at personal
interaction; stays calm
and focused; can concentrate intensely;
develops ideas; uses
discretion in talking
May lose touch
with outer world;
keeps people at
a distance; easily
preoccupied
Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That
Focuses His or Her Attention and Presents Strengths and
Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations as They Arise (Cont.)
Psychological Focus and
Types
Preferences
Strengths
Weaknesses
(if Overextended)
Sensing
Facts; data; details;
concrete; reality
based; present
oriented
Pragmatic; precise;
stable; results oriented; sensible; systematic
Lacks long-range
outlook; may reject
innovative ideas
Intuitive
Possibilities;
hunches;
speculations; theoretical ; future
oriented
Imaginative; conceptulizes easily; creative;
intellectually tenacious;
idealistic
Unrealistic; out of
touch; bored by
routine; scattered
Rational; analytical;
assertive; logical; carefully weighs alternatives;
firm but fair; explains
thoroughly
Undervalues feelings; overly analytical; insensitive;
critical; judgmental
Thinking
Analysis; objective;
logic; impersonal;
justice; systematic
inquiry
Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That
Focuses His or Her Attention and Presents Strengths
and Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations as They
Arise (Cont.)
Psychological Focus and
Types
Preferences
Feeling
Judging
Strengths
Sympathy;
Persuasive; empathic;
subjective; humane; warm; sensitive; demonpersonal;
strative and expressive;
compassion; trust; loyal
consideration
Plan, organize, and
Organized; planned;control well; persistent;
settled;control one’s decisive; conscientious;
life; set goals; struc- reliable
tured; routine
Perceiving Pending; flexible; Open minded; adaptable;
curious; spontaneity;spontaneous; undertentative; let life
standing; tolerant;
happen; undaunted inquisitive
by surprise; open to
change
Weaknesses
(if Overextended)
Overly sensitive;
moody; can become
emotionally overburdened
Close minded; inflexible; can jump to
conclusions too
quickly; intolerant;
judgmental
Indecisive; procrastinates; unfocused;
disorganized; impulsive; may collect
data too long before
deciding
Frequently Used Shortcuts in
Judging Others
Selective Perception
Projection
Stereotyping
Halo Effect
Emotional Intelligence
Definition: Self-control, zeal, persistence, and
the ability to motivate oneself.
The 5 Domains of Emotional Intelligence:
Knowing your own emotions
Managing your emotions
Motivating yourself
Empathy
Handling Relationships
Knowing Your Emotions
The first step, the fundamental competence
on which all others are built
Self-Awareness: being aware of both our mood
and our thoughts about that mood—the building
block to the next step. . . Shaking off a bad mood
Ways of Attending to Emotions:
Self-aware
Engulfed
Accepting (laissez-faire)
Getting to understand your ‘Gut Feelings’
The Emotional Hijacking
Managing Emotions
Finding a Balance
Venting Emotions
Anger (Don’t Suppress it but Don’t Act)
Reframe Anger (Paradigm Shifts)
1. Challenge the Triggering Thoughts
2. Understanding
Worry
Motivating Yourself
“Mundanity of Excellence”
Anxiety, Anger & Depression Inhibit Learning
Impulse Control & Delayed Gratification
(the Marshmallow Experiment)
Memory is state-specific
Self-Efficacy can be learned, like optimism
and hope
Flow
Self-Forgetfulness
Zone between Boredom & Anxiety
Empathy
Requires Enough Calm and Receptivity
so Subtle Signs of Others can be
Received
Benefits of Reading Non-verbal Cues:
Better Adjusted
More Popular
More Outgoing
More Sensitive
Handling Relationships
Key Social Competence: Expressing
Own Feelings
Display Rules:
Minimizing
Exaggerating
Substituting
Emotional Judo
Values
Content & Intensity Attributes
Lay the foundation for the
understanding of attitudes and
motivation.
Influence our perceptions.
Influence attitudes and behavior.
Sources of Value Systems develop
over time.
Achievement, peace, cooperation,
equity etc.
What are Attitudes?
Evaluative statements or judgements
concerning objects, people, or events.
Either favorable or unfavorable.
Attitudes Reflect a Person’s Values.
Attitudes & Consistency for Individuals:
Among their attitudes
Between their attitudes and behavior
Align attitudes and behavior by changing one
or the other.
Three Components of
Attitudes
Evaluative – how we feel
Cognitive – personal knowledge
Behavioral – predisposition to act in a
certain way.
Job Satisfaction
Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
Motivators
higher level
needs
satisfiers
Hygiene Factors
dis-satisfiers
lower level needs
working conditions
Motivators  Worker Satisfaction. Hygiene
Factors  Worker Dissatisfaction.
HYGIENE FACTORS
Job
Dissatisfaction
No Job
Dissatisfaction
•Pay
•Status
•Security
•Working Conditions
•Fringe Benefits
•Policies and Administrative Practices
•Interpersonal Relations
Fig. 4-3
MOTIVATORS
No Job
Satisfaction
Job
Satisfaction
•Meaningful Work
•Challenging Work
•Recognition for Accomplishments
•Feeling of Achievement
•Increased Responsibility
•Opportunities for Growth
and Advancement
•The Job Itself
Consequences of Job
Dissatisfaction
Turnover
Absenteeism
Job
performance
Ability
Directly influences level of performance
and satisfaction.
Need an effective selection process.
Need effective promotion and transfer
decisions.
Need to fine-tune jobs to fit individuals.
Types of Ability