Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
LECTURE PRESENTATIONS For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson Endocrine System Chapter 45 Biology Campbell 9th Ed Lectures by Erin Barley Kathleen Fitzpatrick © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Caffeine Article • Read “Cell Membranes and Signaling” • Let’s find out how caffeine affects cells. Overview: The Body’s Long-Distance Regulators • Animal hormones are chemical signals that are secreted into the circulatory system and communicate regulatory messages within the body • Hormones reach all parts of the body, but only target cells have receptors for that hormone • Insect metamorphosis is regulated by hormones © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • Two systems coordinate communication throughout the body: the endocrine system and the nervous system • The endocrine system secretes hormones that coordinate slower but longer-acting responses including reproduction, development, energy metabolism, growth, and behavior • The nervous system conveys high-speed electrical signals along specialized cells called neurons; these signals regulate other cells © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Endocrine Signaling • Hormones secreted into extracellular fluids by endocrine cells reach their targets via the bloodstream • Endocrine signaling maintains homeostasis, mediates responses to stimuli, regulates growth and development © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.2 Blood vessel Response (a) Endocrine signaling Response (b) Paracrine signaling Response (c) Autocrine signaling Synapse Neuron Response (d) Synaptic signaling Neurosecretory cell Blood vessel (e) Neuroendocrine signaling Response Receptors: Cells have millions of tiny molecular receptors on their membranes, and there are many millions of ligand molecules around the cell, but only a few specific ligands bind to the receptor. Paracrine and Autocrine Signaling Local regulators are molecules that act over short distances, reaching target cells solely by diffusion •In paracrine signaling, the target cells lie near the secreting cells – Morphogens ex: Growth Factor Sonic hedgehog – Cytokines in Lymphocytes ex: B cells and T cells) – Prostaglandins- many functions, • sperm cells cause woman’s uterus to contract, aiding sperm in reaching egg. •In autocrine signaling, the target cell is also the secreting cell • Helper T cells, Cancer Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Autocrine Signaling • Cancers self-direct, and fail to “take orders” from other cells. – Cells need checks and balances and normally don’t rely on autocrine signal alone. Figure 43.16 Antigenpresenting cell Antigen fragment Pathogen Class II MHC molecule Accessory protein Antigen receptor 1 Helper T cell Cytokines Humoral immunity B cell 3 2 Cytotoxic T cell Cellmediated immunity Figure 45.2a Blood vessel Response (a) Endocrine signaling Response (b) Paracrine signaling Response (c) Autocrine signaling Prostaglandins • Local Regulators composed of fatty acids • Prostaglandins in the immune system promote both fever and inflammation. – These include pain, prostaglandins intensify pain. – Aspirin and ibuprofen block prostaglandin synthesis, thus alleviating pain. Synaptic and Neuroendocrine Signaling • In synaptic signaling, neurons form specialized junctions with target cells, called synapses • At synapses, neurons secrete molecules called neurotransmitters that diffuse short distances and bind to receptors on target cells • In neuroendocrine signaling, specialized neurosecretory cells secrete molecules called neurohormones that travel to target cells via the bloodstream – Oxytocin- contractions and milk production – Vasopressin (kidney and water balance) Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.2b Synapse Neuron Response (d) Synaptic signaling Neurosecretory cell Blood vessel (e) Neuroendocrine signaling Response Pair Up • List and briefly describe 5 types of cell signaling. Signaling by Pheromones • Members of the same animal species sometimes communicate with pheromones, chemicals that are released into the environment • Pheromones serve many functions, including marking trails leading to food, defining territories, warning of predators, and attracting potential mates • Do humans have pheromones? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.3 Endocrine Tissues and Organs • In some tissues, endocrine cells are grouped together in ductless organs called endocrine glands • Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into surrounding fluid • These contrast with exocrine glands, which have ducts and which secrete substances onto body surfaces or into cavities Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.4 Major glands: Hypothalamus Pineal gland Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands (behind thyroid) Organs containing endocrine cells: Thymus Heart Liver Adrenal glands (atop kidneys) Stomach Pancreas Kidneys Ovaries (female) Small intestine Testes (male) Chemical Classes of Hormones • Three major classes of molecules function as hormones in vertebrates – Polypeptides (proteins and peptides)- insulin – Amines derived from an amino acidepinephrine, thyroxine – Steroid hormones- derived from lipids • cholesterol, testosterone, ecdysteroid, cortisol Of these, steroid hormones are lipid soluble, and CAN permeate the plasma membrane Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Hydrophobic/ Hydrophilic hormones • Lipid-soluble hormones (steroid hormones) pass easily through cell membranes, while watersoluble hormones (polypeptides and amines) do not • The solubility of a hormone correlates with the location of receptors inside or on the surface of target cells Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.5 Water-soluble (hydrophilic) Lipid-soluble (hydrophobic) Polypeptides Steroids 0.8 nm Insulin Cortisol Amines Epinephrine Thyroxine Cellular Response Pathways • Water- and lipid-soluble hormones differ in their paths through a body • Water-soluble hormones are secreted by exocytosis, travel freely in the bloodstream, and bind to cell-surface receptors • Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across cell membranes, travel in the bloodstream bound to transport proteins, and diffuse through the membrane of target cells © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.6-1 SECRETORY CELL Lipidsoluble hormone Watersoluble hormone VIA BLOOD Signal receptor Transport protein TARGET CELL Signal receptor NUCLEUS (a) (b) Figure 45.6-2 SECRETORY CELL Lipidsoluble hormone Watersoluble hormone VIA BLOOD Signal receptor TARGET CELL Cytoplasmic response Transport protein OR Gene regulation Signal receptor Cytoplasmic response NUCLEUS (a) (b) Gene regulation Pathway for Water-Soluble Hormones • Binding of a hormone to its receptor initiates a signal transduction pathway leading to responses in the cytoplasm, enzyme activation, or a change in gene expression Animation: Water-Soluble Hormone © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Signal Transduction Signal transduction-The process by which a cell converts an input signal into a response. • Inputs and responses – Action potential: Release of Neurotransmitter – Binding of Antigen to Antibody: Release of Cytokine – Binding of hormone: • Production of protein, change in metabolic activity, cell growth, cell division, cell death. • Plant greening response (de-etiolation) • Intermediate steps between signal and response comprise signal transduction. • The hormone epinephrine has multiple effects in mediating the body’s response to short-term stress • Epinephrine binds to receptors on the plasma membrane of liver cells • This triggers the release of messenger molecules that activate enzymes and result in the release of glucose into the bloodstream Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.7-1 Epinephrine Adenylyl cyclase G protein G protein-coupled receptor GTP ATP cAMP Second messenger Figure 45.7-2 Epinephrine Adenylyl cyclase G protein G protein-coupled receptor GTP ATP cAMP Inhibition of glycogen synthesis Promotion of glycogen breakdown Protein kinase A Second messenger Caffeine slows the breakdown of cAMP, so epinephrine’s effects are enhanced Effects of Epinephrine • • • • Increased heart rate Increased breathing Promotion of glycogen breakdown Inhibition of glycogen synthesis • Increased blood flow to some muscles. Figure 45.7-2 Epinephrine Adenylyl cyclase G protein G protein-coupled receptor GTP ATP cAMP Second messenger Water soluble hormones work like this Protein They are not able to kinase A Permeate the plasma membrane Ex: Insulin, glucagon, FSH, LH Pathway for Lipid-Soluble Hormones • The response to a lipid-soluble hormone is usually a change in gene expression • Steroids, thyroid hormones, and the hormonal form of vitamin D enter target cells and bind to protein receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus • Protein-receptor complexes then act as transcription factors in the nucleus, regulating transcription of specific genes Animation: Lipid-Soluble Hormone © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.8-1 Hormone (estradiol) Estradiol (estrogen) receptor EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Plasma membrane Hormone-receptor complex Figure 45.8-2 EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Hormone (estradiol) Estradiol (estrogen) receptor Plasma membrane Hormone-receptor complex NUCLEUS CYTOPLASM DNA Vitellogenin mRNA for vitellogenin Makes egg yolk in birds . Signaling by Local Regulators • Local regulators are secreted molecules that link neighboring cells or directly regulate the secreting cell • Types of local regulators – Cytokines and growth factors – Nitric oxide (NO) – Prostaglandins Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Check yourself • Which types of hormones pass through the cell membrane? • Give an example of a paracrine signal/ autocrine signal. • Contrast hormone, local regulator, and pheromone. • True or False: Each cell type has a receptor for a unique type of ligand. Check yourself • Which types of hormones pass through the cell membrane? – Hydrophobic/ steroid • Give an example of a paracrine signal/ autocrine signal. – Cytokines from T cells to other Lymphocytes/ Cytokine from T cell to itself • Contrast hormone, local regulator, and pheromone. – Hormones travel to distant organs via blood, local to nearby cells, and pheromones to other organisms True or False: False, each cell has millions of receptors, but only target cells have matching receptor Coordination of Neuroendocrine and Endocrine Signaling • The endocrine and nervous systems generally act coordinately to control reproduction and development • For example, in larvae of butterflies and moths, the signals that direct molting originate in the brain © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • In insects, molting and development are controlled by a combination of hormones – A brain hormone (PTTH) stimulates release of ecdysteroid from the prothoracic glands – Juvenile hormone promotes retention of larval characteristics – Ecdysone promotes molting (in the presence of juvenile hormone) and development (in the absence of juvenile hormone) of adult characteristics Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Concept 45.2: Feedback regulation and antagonistic hormone pairs are common in endocrine systems • Hormones are assembled into regulatory pathways • Antagonistic hormone pairs: – Glucagon/ Insulin – Parathyroid/ Calcitonin © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Simple Hormone Pathways • Hormones are released from an endocrine cell, travel through the bloodstream, and interact with specific receptors within a target cell to cause a physiological response © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • For example, the release of acidic contents of the stomach into the duodenum stimulates endocrine cells there to secrete secretin • This causes target cells in the pancreas, a gland behind the stomach, to raise the pH in the duodenum © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • In a simple neuroendocrine pathway, the stimulus is received by a sensory neuron, which stimulates a neurosecretory cell • The neurosecretory cell secretes a neurohormone, which enters the bloodstream and travels to target cells Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.12 Example Pathway Stimulus Suckling Sensory neuron Positive feedback Hypothalamus/ posterior pituitary Neurosecretory cell Posterior pituitary secretes the neurohormone Neurohormone oxytocin ( ). Blood vessel Target cells Response Smooth muscle in breasts Milk release Feedback Regulation • A negative feedback loop inhibits a response by reducing the initial stimulus, thus preventing excessive pathway activity • Positive feedback reinforces a stimulus to produce an even greater response • For example, in mammals- the neurohormone oxytocin causes the release of milk, causing greater suckling by offspring, which stimulates the release of more oxytocin © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Insulin and Glucagon: Control of Blood Glucose • Insulin (decreases blood glucose) and glucagon (increases blood glucose) are antagonistic hormones that help maintain glucose homeostasis • The pancreas has clusters of endocrine cells called pancreatic islets with alpha cells that produce glucagon and beta cells that produce insulin © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.13 Insulin Body cells take up more glucose. Blood glucose level declines. Beta cells of pancreas release insulin into the blood. Liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen. STIMULUS: Blood glucose level rises (for instance, after eating a carbohydrate-rich meal). Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (70–110 mg/m100mL) STIMULUS: Blood glucose level falls (for instance, after skipping a meal). Blood glucose level rises. Liver breaks down glycogen and releases glucose into the blood. Alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon into the blood. Glucagon Figure 45.13a-1 Insulin Beta cells of pancreas release insulin into the blood. STIMULUS: Blood glucose level rises (for instance, after eating a carbohydrate-rich meal). Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (70–110 mg/100 mL) Figure 45.13a-2 Insulin Body cells take up more glucose. Blood glucose level declines. Beta cells of pancreas release insulin into the blood. Liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen. STIMULUS: Blood glucose level rises (for instance, after eating a carbohydrate-rich meal). Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (70–110 mg/100 mL) Figure 45.13b-1 Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (70–110 mg/100 mL) STIMULUS: Blood glucose level falls (for instance, after skipping a meal). Alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon into the blood. Glucagon Figure 45.13b-2 Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (70–110 mg/100 mL) STIMULUS: Blood glucose level falls (for instance, after skipping a meal). Blood glucose level rises. Liver breaks down glycogen and releases glucose into the blood. Alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon into the blood. Glucagon Target Tissues for Insulin and Glucagon • Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by – Promoting the cellular uptake of glucose – Slowing glycogen breakdown in the liver – Promoting fat storage, not breakdown Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by – Stimulating conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver – Stimulating breakdown of fat and protein into glucose Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Diabetes Mellitus • Diabetes mellitus is perhaps the best-known endocrine disorder • It is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues • It is marked by elevated blood glucose levels © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • Type 1 diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells • Type 2 diabetes mellitus (non-insulindependent) involves insulin deficiency or reduced response of target cells due to change in insulin receptors Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Concept 45.3: The hypothalamus and pituitary are central to endocrine regulation • Endocrine pathways are subject to regulation by the nervous system, including the brain © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Coordination of Endocrine and Nervous Systems in Vertebrates • The hypothalamus receives information from the nervous system and initiates responses through the endocrine system • Attached to the hypothalamus is the pituitary gland, composed of the posterior pituitary and anterior pituitary – Remember GnRH and FSH/ LH? Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • The posterior pituitary stores and secretes hormones that are made in the hypothalamus • The anterior pituitary makes and releases hormones under regulation of the hypothalamus (such as FSH and LH under regulation of GnRH) Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.14 Cerebrum Pineal gland Thalamus Hypothalamus Cerebellum Pituitary gland Spinal cord The nearest route for pituitary surgery is the mouth. Hypothalamus Posterior pituitary Anterior pituitary Posterior Pituitary Hormones • The two hormones released from the posterior pituitary act directly on nonendocrine tissues – Oxytocin regulates milk secretion by the mammary glands – Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates physiology and behavior • Increases water retention in kidneys • Pair-bonding in some mammals Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.15 Hypothalamus Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus Neurohormone Axons Posterior pituitary Anterior pituitary HORMONE ADH Oxytocin TARGET Kidney tubules Mammary glands, uterine muscles Anterior Pituitary Hormones • Hormone production in the anterior pituitary is controlled by releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus – For example, prolactin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete prolactin (PRL), which has a role in milk production Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.16 Tropic effects only: FSH LH TSH ACTH Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus Nontropic effects only: Prolactin MSH Nontropic and tropic effects: GH Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones Portal vessels Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary Pituitary hormones Posterior pituitary HORMONE FSH and LH TSH ACTH Prolactin TARGET Testes or ovaries Thyroid Adrenal cortex Mammary glands MSH GH Melanocytes Liver, bones, other tissues Table 45.1b Thyroid Regulation: A Hormone Cascade Pathway • A hormone can stimulate the release of a series of other hormones, the last of which activates a nonendocrine target cell; this is called a hormone cascade pathway • The release of thyroid hormone results from a hormone cascade pathway involving the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and thyroid gland • Hormone cascade pathways typically involve negative feedback Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.17 Example Pathway Stimulus Cold Sensory neuron Hypothalamus Neurosecretory cell Hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH ). Releasing hormone Blood vessel Negative feedback Anterior pituitary Tropic hormone Endocrine cell Anterior pituitary secretes thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH, also known as thyrotropin ). Thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormone (T3 and T4 ). Hormone Target cells Response Body tissues Increased cellular metabolism Disorders of Thyroid Function and Regulation • Hypothyroidism, too little thyroid function, can produce symptoms such as – Weight gain, lethargy, cold intolerance • Hyperthyroidism, excessive production of thyroid hormone, can lead to – High temperature, sweating, weight loss, irritability, and high blood pressure • Malnutrition can alter thyroid function Write In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • Hypothyroid or low iodine in diet can lead to goiter. – Iodine is necessary to make thyroid hormone – If thyroid hormone can’t be made, TSH levels build up by feedback, and goiter results. • Graves disease, a form of hyperthyroidism caused by autoimmunity, is typified by protruding eyes • Thyroid hormone refers to a pair of hormones – (T3) Triiodothyronin, with three iodine atoms – (T4) Thyroxine , with four iodine atoms • Insufficient dietary iodine leads to an enlarged thyroid gland, called a goiter Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. EXTREME CONDITIONS Cretinism Oversecretion of thyroxine In early childhood Graves Disease Hyperthyroid Figure 45.18 Low level of iodine uptake High level of iodine uptake Evolution of Hormone Function • Over the course of evolution the function of a given hormone may diverge between species • For example, thyroid hormone plays a role in metabolism across many lineages, but in frogs has taken on a unique function: stimulating the resorption of the tadpole tail during metamorphosis • Prolactin also has a broad range of activities in vertebrates Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.19 Tadpole Adult frog • Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) regulates skin color in amphibians, fish, and reptiles by controlling pigment distribution in melanocytes • In mammals, MSH plays additional roles in hunger and metabolism in addition to coloration Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Tropic and Nontropic Hormones • A tropic hormone regulates the function of endocrine cells or glands • Three primarily tropic hormones are – Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) – Luteinizing hormone (LH) – Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) • Guess what organ adrenocorticotropic hormone regulates? Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • Growth hormone (GH) is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and has tropic and nontropic actions • It promotes growth directly and has diverse metabolic effects • It stimulates production of growth factors • An excess of GH can cause gigantism, while a lack of GH can cause dwarfism Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Gigantism Concept 45.4: Endocrine glands respond to diverse stimuli in regulating homeostasis, development, and behavior • Endocrine signaling regulates homeostasis, development, and behavior © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Parathyroid Hormone and Vitamin D: Control of Blood Calcium • Two antagonistic hormones regulate the homeostasis of calcium (Ca2+) in the blood of mammals – Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is released by the parathyroid glands – Calcitonin is released by the thyroid gland Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • PTH increases the level of blood Ca2+ – It releases Ca2+ from bone and stimulates reabsorption of Ca2+ in the kidneys – It also has an indirect effect, stimulating the kidneys to activate vitamin D, which promotes intestinal uptake of Ca2+ from food • Calcitonin decreases the level of blood Ca2+ – It stimulates Ca2+ deposition in bones and secretion by kidneys Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.20-1 PTH Parathyroid gland (behind thyroid) STIMULUS: Falling blood Ca2 level Homeostasis: Blood Ca2 level (about 10 mg/100 mL) Figure 45.20-2 Increases Ca2 uptake in intestines Active vitamin D Stimulates Ca2 uptake in kidneys PTH Stimulates Ca2 release from bones Parathyroid gland (behind thyroid) STIMULUS: Falling blood Ca2 level Blood Ca2 level rises. Homeostasis: Blood Ca2 level (about 10 mg/100 mL) Adrenal Hormones: Response to Stress • The adrenal glands are adjacent to the kidneys • Each adrenal gland actually consists of two glands: the adrenal medulla (inner portion) and adrenal cortex (outer portion) Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Catecholamines from the Adrenal Medulla • The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) • These hormones are members of a class of compounds called catecholamines • They are secreted in response to stress-activated impulses from the nervous system • They mediate various fight-or-flight responses Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. From the comedy: Police Academy • Epinephrine and norepinephrine – Trigger the release of glucose and fatty acids into the blood – Increase oxygen delivery to body cells – Direct blood toward heart, brain, and skeletal muscles and away from skin, digestive system, and kidneys • The release of epinephrine and norepinephrine occurs in response to involuntary nerve signals Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.21 (b) Long-term stress response and the adrenal cortex (a) Short-term stress response and the adrenal medulla Stress Spinal cord (cross section) Hypothalamus Nerve signals Releasing hormone Nerve cell Anterior pituitary Blood vessel Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. Nerve cell ACTH Adrenal cortex secretes mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. Adrenal gland Kidney Effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine: • Glycogen broken down to glucose; increased blood glucose • Increased blood pressure • Increased breathing rate • Increased metabolic rate • Change in blood flow patterns, leading to increased alertness and decreased digestive, excretory, and reproductive system activity Effects of mineralocorticoids: Effects of glucocorticoids: • Retention of sodium ions and water by kidneys • Proteins and fats broken down and converted to glucose, leading to increased blood glucose • Increased blood volume and blood pressure • Partial suppression of immune system Figure 45.21a (a) Short-term stress response and the adrenal medulla Stress Nerve Spinal cord (cross section) signals Hypothalamus Nerve cell Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. Effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine: • Glycogen broken down to glucose; increased blood glucose • Increased blood pressure • Increased breathing rate • Increased metabolic rate • Change in blood flow patterns, leading to increased alertness and decreased digestive, excretory, and reproductive system activity Nerve cell Adrenal gland Kidney Steroid Hormones from the Adrenal Cortex • The adrenal cortex releases a family of steroids called corticosteroids in response to stress • These hormones are triggered by a hormone cascade pathway via the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary (ACTH) • Humans produce two types of corticosteroids: glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids Fill In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.21b (b) Long-term stress response and the adrenal cortex Stress Hypothalamus Releasing hormone Anterior pituitary Blood vessel ACTH Adrenal gland Adrenal cortex secretes mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. Kidney Effects of mineralocorticoids: Effects of glucocorticoids: • Retention of sodium ions and water by kidneys • Proteins and fats broken down and converted to glucose, leading to increased blood glucose • Increased blood volume and blood pressure • Partial suppression of immune system • Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, influence glucose metabolism and the immune system • Mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone, affect salt and water balance • The adrenal cortex also produces small amounts of steroid hormones that function as sex hormones © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Gonadal Sex Hormones • The gonads, testes and ovaries, produce most of the sex hormones: androgens, estrogens, and progestins • All three sex hormones are found in both males and females, but in significantly different proportions © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • The testes primarily synthesize androgens, mainly testosterone, which stimulate development and maintenance of the male reproductive system • Testosterone causes an increase in muscle and bone mass and is often taken as a supplement to cause muscle growth, which carries health risks © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.22 RESULTS Appearance of Genitalia Chromosome Set No surgery Embryonic gonad removed XY (male) Male Female XX (female) Female Female • Estrogens, most importantly estradiol, are responsible for maintenance of the female reproductive system and the development of female secondary sex characteristics • In mammals, progestins, which include progesterone, are primarily involved in preparing and maintaining the uterus • Synthesis of the sex hormones is controlled by FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Endocrine Disruptors • Between 1938 and 1971 some pregnant women at risk for complications were prescribed a synthetic estrogen called diethylstilbestrol (DES) • Daughters of women treated with DES are at higher risk for reproductive abnormalities, including miscarriage, structural changes, and cervical and vaginal cancers © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • DES is an endocrine disruptor, a molecule that interrupts the normal function of a hormone pathway, in this case, that of estrogen © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Melatonin and Biorhythms • The pineal gland, located in the brain, secretes melatonin • Light/dark cycles control release of melatonin • Primary functions of melatonin appear to relate to biological rhythms associated with reproduction Write In © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 45.UN02 Pathway Example Stimulus Low blood glucose Negative feedback Pancreas secretes glucagon ( ). Endocrine cell Hormone Blood vessel Target cells Response Liver Glycogen breakdown, glucose release into blood CASE STUDIES • See page 102 in ABLE