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► Consists of two lobes on each side of larynx ► The thyroid gland is composed of tens of thousands of _____________. Each follicle consists of a sphere of cuboidal glandular cells surrounding colloid, which contains thyroid precursor for later use ► Produces two hormones: _________ hormone and __________________ Thyroid hormone is actually two hormones: T3 and T4 (triiodothyronine and thyroxine) Produced when TSH from ant pituitary reaches thyroid gland T4 produced in greater abundance than T3 but is mostly converted to T3 before producing effects on target cells ______ more potent and considered Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. the main thyroid hormone. Thyroid Gland Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Effects of Thyroid Hormones ► _____________________ effect - regulates metabolic rate (BMR) Allows an animal to generate heat and maintain a constant internal body temperature, when outside temperature changes. Production of thyroid hormone increases with exposure to cold temperatures. ► Increases body’s __________________, which generates more ______. ► Effect on Protein, Carbohydrate, and Lipid Metabolism Proteins: ► Encourages synthesis of proteins if diet is adequate in energy sources. ► If energy sources are not adequate in diet, then can actually __________ proteins. Carbohydrates: ► Hyperglycemic effect. ► Helps to maintain homeostasis of the blood glucose level by helping to prevent it from dropping too low. Lipids: ► Encourages their ________________________. Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Hypothyroidism • Inadequate amount of hormone produced. • Occurs commonly in middle age ____. • Symptoms include: • Alopecia • Dry skin • Lethargy • Reluctance to exercise • Weight gain/ decreased metabolism • Seeking out sources of heat. • Easily treated with thyroid supplementation Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Hyperthyroidism • Too much thyroid hormone production. • Most common endocrine disorder seen in _____. • Symptoms include: • Nervousness/irritability/excitability • Weight loss • polyphagia, but no weight gain • Tachycardia • Vomiting • Diarrhea • Polyuria • Polydipsia • Treated surgically by removing the thyroid gland, radioactive treatment, or drugs to suppress thyroid production. Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Goiter • Non-cancerous, non-inflammatory enlargement of the thyroid gland. • Results from ____________ deficient diet • Because iodine is an important component of thyroid hormone, a deficiency of iodine results in a deficiency of thyroid hormone. • The anterior pituitary attempts to compensate by producing more TSH. This overstimulates the thyroid gland, causing ___________________. • Can be treated and prevented with iodine supplements. • Iodized salt should be added to diets if they are known to be deficient. Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. ► ► Produced by C cells (parafollicular cells) located between thyroid follicles Maintains homeostasis of blood _______________ levels Calcium is necessary for muscle contraction, blood clotting, milk secretion, and formation/maintenance of skeleton. Calcium levels must be kept within a narrow range to allow these to take place normally. ► Prevents hypercalcemia by decreasing blood calcium levels if they get too high. Encourages excess calcium to be deposited into the ____________ Calcitonin (the other Thyroid hormone) Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) also called parathormone ► ► Produced by parathyroid glands Small, pale nodules in, on, or near the thyroid glands Helps maintain blood Calcium levels by producing the _____________effect of calcitonin Prevents hypocalcemia by _____________ blood calcium if gets too low. ► Causes kidneys to retain calcium and intestines to absorb calcium from food. ► Can take calcium out of storage from the bones. Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Hypocalcemia • Milk fever- when parathormone is overwhelmed in ____________ animals. • Called _____________ in small animals • Can cause muscle weakness and tremors. • Can progress to seizures and spasms if left untreated. • “____________ cows” • Treated by supplementing calcium rapidly into system Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Adrenal glands are located near cranial ends of kidneys ► Adrenal cortex Classic endocrine gland tissue Produce (under direction of ACTH): ► __________________ hormones (cortisol) Cause blood glucose levels to rise due to protein and lipid catabolism causing gluconeogenesis Also increase body’s resistance to stress, decrease immune response, and decrease inflammation ► ________________ hormones (aldosterone) Affects the levels of Na, K, and H in the body Increase sodium reabsorption and potassium/hydrogen excretion in the kidneys Adrenal Cortex ► _____hormones (androgens and estrogens) small amount with minimal effects) Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. • Too much of cortisol in system-Hyperadrenocorticism= ____________ Disease. • Symptoms include: • PU/PD/PP • Hair loss • Muscle wasting • Pot belly • Slow wound healing • Usually caused by pituitary tumor, but can be caused by adrenal tumor or iatrogenic administration of steroids • Deficiency of adrenocortical hormonesHypoadrenocorticism=_________________ Disease. • Lack of mineralcorticoids and or glucocorticoids causing decreased Na and increased K • Symptoms include: • Weakness • Lethargy • Vomiting • Diarrhea • Weight loss • Can be caused by a sudden withdrawal of corticosteroid drugs Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. 2. Adrenal medulla ► Resembles nervous tissue ► Controlled by sympathetic portion of nervous system (fight or flight) ► Produces: ___________________________ ► Increases HR and CO, increases BP, dilates air passageways in lungs, and decreases GI function Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Adrenal Medulla Pancreas ► Located near duodenum Both exocrine and endocrine functions ► Endocrine component - small % of total organ volume ►Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans): groups of cells scattered throughout the pancreas Alpha cells - produce _______________ Beta cells - produce _______________ Delta cells - produce ________________ Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Pancreatic Hormones ► Insulin: _________ blood glucose Causes glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids to be absorbed into body cells ► Glucagon: ________ blood glucose Stimulates liver cells to convert stored glycogen to glucose Stimulating gluconeogenesis ► Amino acids and fatty acids converted to glucose ► Somatostatin: _________ release of insulin, glucagon, and Growth Hormone, and decreases GI activity Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Pancreatic Dysfunction: Diabetes Mellitus • • • • Caused by deficiency of _____. Results from build up of ______ Symptoms include: Polyuria Polydipsia Polyphagia Weight loss Weakness Not curable but treatable through injections of insulin and diet changes Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Gonads: Testes ► Interstitial cells: clumps of endocrine cells Produce androgens (________________) when stimulated by _____ ► a.k.a. “interstitial cell stimulating hormone” (ICSH) in the male ► _______________: primary androgen Provides for development of male secondary sex characteristics and accessory sex glands Necessary for spermatogenesis Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Gonads: Ovaries Produce ______ (eggs) and hormones in cycles ► Controlled by ________ and ____(from anterior pituitary) ► Hormones produced in ovaries: 1.Estrogens 2.Progesterone ► Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. ► __________ stimulates ovarian follicles to develop Cells of follicles produce and release ________________ Amount of estrogen produced increases as follicle grows Estrogen ► Increasing estrogen levels cause physical and behavioral changes Swollen vulva Receptive to male Feedback to anterior pituitary: increased estrogen causes anterior pituitary to __________production of FSH and __________ production of LH ► When follicle is fully mature, LH level peaks In most animal species, ___________ items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. occurs when Mosby LH peaks Group of hormones produced by ________ ____________ (CL) ► High ___ level stimulates cells of empty follicle to multiply and develop into CL ► Progesterone - principal progestin Prepares ________ to receive fertilized ovum Needed to maintain ___________ ► In pregnant female, hormone signal (varies between species) is sent from uterus, and CL is maintained ► If no pregnancy occurs, lack of hormone signal causes CL to shrink and disappear Progestins Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Produce _________________ stimulates red bone marrow to increase production of _______ ►Stimulated by ________, loss of RBCs, increased aerobic exercise ►As RBC production increases, more oxygen is delivered to kidneys, which slows production of erythropoietin Kidneys ►Lack of production may result in anemia Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Stomach and Small Intestines ► Stomach: ________ is produced by G-cells in the wall of the pyloric antrum Stimulated by the presence of food in the stomach Causes HCl secretion, digestive enzyme secretion, and encourages contraction of the stomach ► Small Intestines: Chyme entering the small intestines causes Secretin and CCK to be released Both cause the stomach motility to decrease and inhibit gastric secretions __________ stimulates the pancreas to secrete bicarbonate into the duodenum to neutralize the acidity of chyme _______ stimulates the gallbladder to contract, allowing bile to aid in the digestion of fats Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Placenta ► Surrounds developing fetus during pregnancy ► Acts as interface with maternal circulation ► Produces hormones to support and maintain pregnancy Small amounts of __________ and _________________ are produced to help maintain pregnancy Chorionic gonadotropin (horses, humans) ► Basis for OTC pregnancy tests Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. ► ► ► Located in the cranial mediastinum Very important during early development, will _______ as animal approaches adulthood. Important in immune system development ► Produces: Thymosin Thymopoietin ► Seem to transform cells of the thymus into t-lymphocytes (_________) which help to attack foreign invaders in the body. Thymus Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Pineal Body ► Influences body’s biological clock ► ________________ – hormone-like substance that affects moods and wake-sleep cycles Also plays a role in timing of seasonal estrous cycles in some species Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Melatonin Production varies with daylight -sets body’s biological clock Production varies with age -associated with sleep patterns Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Prostaglandins ► Derived from unsaturated fatty acids ► Sometimes called tissue hormones due to the fact they travel short distances. ► Organized in groups A-I ► Produced in a variety of body tissues including: Skin, intestines, brain, kidneys, lungs, reproductive organs, eye ► Effects: Influence blood pressure, GI function, Respiratory function, Kidney function, Blood clotting, Inflammation, Reproductive functions ► PGE’s initiate _______________, so NSAIDs inhibit PGE production. ► PGF2- alpha is used to synchronize estrous cycles in livestock Mosby items and derived items © 2008 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc.