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PowerPoint® Lecture Slides prepared by Betsy C. Brantley Valencia College CHAPTER 5 The Skeletal System © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes • Section 1: An Introduction to the Bones of the Skeletal System • 5.1 • Classify bones according to their shapes, and describe the major types of surface features. • 5.2 • Identify the parts of a typical long bone, state the locations of compact bone and spongy bone, and describe the internal anatomy of a long bone. • 5.3 • Name the three cell types in bone, identify their major functions, and summarize calcium homeostasis. • 5.4 • Compare the structure and functions of compact bone and spongy bone. • 5.5 • Summarize endochondral ossification. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes • 5.6 • CLINICAL MODULE Discuss various clinical disorders associated with abnormal bone growth and development. • 5.7 • CLINICAL MODULE Describe various types of fractures and explain how fractures heal. • Section 2: The Skeleton • 5.8 • Identify the bones of the face and cranium, and identify and locate the cranial sutures. • 5.9 • Identify and describe the surface features of the skull. • 5.10 • Label landmarks seen on sectional views of the skull, and identify and describe components of the nasal complex. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes • 5.11 • List associated bones of the skull, and discuss the hyoid bone, including functions and features. • 5.12 • Define fontanelles, explain their purpose, and describe key structural differences among the skulls of infants, children, and adults. • 5.13 • Identify and describe the curves of the spinal column and their function, identify the vertebral regions, and describe the parts of a vertebra. • 5.14 • Describe the distinctive structural and functional characteristics of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae. • 5.15 • Describe the distinctive structural and functional characteristics of the lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes • 5.16 • Describe the thoracic cage, and explain the significance of the articulations between the thoracic vertebrae and the ribs and between the ribs and the sternum. • 5.17 • CLINICAL MODULE Compare and contrast kyphosis, scoliosis, and lordosis. • 5.18 • Identify the bones that form the pectoral girdle, their functions, and their superficial features. • 5.19 • Identify the bones of the arm and forearm, their functions, and their superficial features. • 5.20 • Identify the bones of the wrist and hand, and describe their locations using anatomical terminology. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes • 5.21 • Describe the hip bones that form the pelvic girdle, their functions, and their superficial features. • 5.22 • Identify the bones of the pelvis, and discuss the structural and functional differences between the male pelvis and the female pelvis. • 5.23 • Identify the bones of the thigh and leg, their functions, and their superficial features. • 5.24 • Identify the bones of the ankle and foot, and describe their locations using anatomical terminology. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes • Section 3: Joint Structure and Movement • 5.25 • Describe the basic structure of a synovial joint, and describe common accessory structures and their functions. • 5.26 • Explain the relationship between structure and function for each type of synovial joint. • 5.27 • CLINICAL MODULE Describe clinical disorders related to intervertebral discs and porous bone. • 5.28 • CLINICAL MODULE Explain arthritis, and describe its effects on joint structure and function. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. An Introduction to the Bones of the Skeletal System (Section 1) • Skeletal system • Includes about 206 bones • Also includes cartilages, ligaments, connective tissue • Divided into: • Axial skeleton • Includes bones of the skull, thorax, vertebral column • Forms the longitudinal axis of the body • Appendicular skeleton • Includes bones of the limbs and pectoral and pelvic girdles © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Axial and appendicular skeleton Axial Skeleton (80 Bones) Appendicular Skeleton (126 Bones) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5 Section 1 1 1 Functions of the Skeletal System (Section 1) • Vital functions of the skeletal system include: • Support • Storage of minerals • Blood cell production • Protection • Movement • Functions depend on unique and dynamic properties of bone tissue © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Support and Storage of Mineral (Section 1) • Skeletal system provides structural support for body • Framework for attachment of soft tissues and organs • Skeletal system stores minerals • Body needs to maintain normal concentrations of circulating calcium and phosphate • Calcium and phosphate held in reserve as part of bone structure • Calcium most abundant mineral in human body • Body normally contains 1-2kg calcium • 98% of that contained in bones © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Protection and Production (Section 1) • Skeletal system provides protection for tissues and organs • Ribs protect heart and lungs • Skull encloses brain • Vertebrae shield spinal cord • Pelvis cradles digestive and reproductive organs • Skeletal system site of blood cell production • Red bone marrow (filling spongy bone spaces) site of production for red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Skeletal System and Movement (Section 1) • Skeletal system works with muscular system to allow movement • Bones function as levers • Change magnitude and direction of forces generated by skeletal muscles • Allow movements from delicate fingertip motion to powerful changes in body position © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone Classification (5.1) • Bones are classified by shape into four categories 1. Flat 2. Long 3. Irregular 4. Short © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Flat Bones (5.1) • Thin, nearly parallel surfaces • Form roof of skull, sternum, ribs, scapulae • Protect underlying soft tissue • Extensive surface area for skeletal muscle attachment © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Long Bones (5.1) • Relatively long and slender • Located in arm, forearm, thigh, leg, palms, soles, fingers, toes • Femur (long bone of thigh) is largest and heaviest bone in body © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Irregular Bones (5.1) • Have complex shapes with short, flat, notched, or ridged surfaces • Include spinal vertebrae, bones of pelvis, several skull bones © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Short Bones (5.1) • Small and boxy • Include bones in wrist (carpal bones) and in ankles (tarsal bones) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Bones are classified by their shape Flat Bones Parietal bone Long Bones Humerus Irregular Bones Vertebra Short Bones Carpal bones © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.1 11 Surface Features (5.1) • Bone markings • Characteristic external and internal features related to particular functions called surface features • Elevations or projections for tendon and ligament attachment • Depressions, grooves, tunnels for blood vessel or nerve passage © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Surface Features – General (5.1) • Head – expanded proximal end of a bone that forms part of a joint • Diaphysis or shaft – elongated body of a long bone • Neck – narrow connection between head and diaphysis of a bone © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Surface Features – Elevations or Projections (5.1) • Process – any projection or bump • Tubercle – small, rounded projection • Tuberosity – small, rough projection that takes up a broad area • Trochlea – smooth, grooved articular process shaped like a pulley • Condyle – smooth, rounded articular process © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Surface Features – Elevations or Projections (5.1) • Trochanter – large, rough projection • Facet – small, flat articular surface • Crest – prominent ridge • Line – low ridge, more delicate than a crest • Spine – pointed or narrow process • Ramus – extension of a bone that makes an angle with rest of structure © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Surface Features – Depressions, Grooves, and Tunnels (5.1) • Canal or meatus – large passageway through a bone • Sinus – chamber within a bone, normally filled with air • Foramen – small, rounded passageway for blood vessels or nerves to pass through bone • Fissure – elongated cleft or gap • Sulcus – deep, narrow groove • Fossa – shallow depression or recess in surface of bone © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Surface features of the skull 1 Surface Features of the Skull Sinus Canal or meatus Foramen Process Fissure © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.1 12 Surface features of the humerus 2 Surface Features of the Humerus Head Tubercle Sulcus Tuberosity Diaphysis Trochanter Condyle © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.1 12 Surface features of the femur 3 Surface Features of the Femur Trochanter Head Neck Diaphysis Facet Condyle © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.1 12 Surface features of the pelvis 4 Surface Features of the Pelvis Crest Fossa Line Spine Ramus © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.1 12 Module 5.1 Review a. Define surface feature. b. Identify the four broad categories for classifying a bone according to shape. c. Compare a tubercle with a tuberosity. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Typical Long Bone Structure (5.2) • Epiphysis • Expanded area at each end of the bone • Diaphysis (shaft) • Long and tubular portion of the bone • Wall composed of thick layer of compact bone • Articular cartilage • Covers parts of the epiphysis that articulate with other bones • Avascular • Relies on diffusion from synovial fluid for nutrients and waste elimination © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Marrow Cavity (5.2) • Space within the shaft of a long bone • Filled with bone marrow • Red bone marrow – involved in red blood cell production • Yellow bone marrow – adipose tissue; energy reserve © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Features of a long bone Epiphysis Marrow cavity Diaphysis Compact bone Articular cartilage © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Epiphysis Figure 5.2 1 -12 – 2 Long Bone Components (5.2) • Epiphysis • Composed mostly of spongy bone • Network of struts and plates • Resembles latticework • Spongy bone covered with thin layer of compact bone • Periosteum • Connective tissue wrapper around superficial layer of compact bone • Isolates bone from surrounding tissues • Plays a role in bone growth and repair • Extensive network of arteries and veins in epiphysis and shaft © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Extensive blood supply in bones Epiphyseal artery and vein Spongy bone in the epiphysis Periosteum Extensive network of arteries and veins Compact bone Marrow cavity © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.2 13 Collagen and Calcium Phosphate (5.2) • Bones composed of: • Collagen • One-third of weight of bone • Strong and flexible • Bends if compressed • Calcified matrix (calcium phosphate) • Two-thirds of weight of bone • Found in crystals • Hard, inflexible, brittle • Combination of collagen and calcified crystals make bone strong, somewhat flexible, and highly resistant to shattering © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone without calcified matrix © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.2 14 Module 5.2 Review a. List the major parts of a long bone. b. Describe the function of the marrow cavity. c. How would the compressive strength of a bone be affected if the ratio of collagen to calcium phosphate increased? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone Cells (5.3) • Both compact and spongy bone contain three types of cells 1. Osteocytes 2. Osteoblasts 3. Osteoclasts © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Osteocytes (5.3) • Mature bone cells that maintain matrix • Secrete chemicals that dissolve matrix • Rebuild matrix – stimulating deposition of mineral crystals • Matrix formed in layers – lamellae • Osteocytes in lacuna • Processes of osteocytes extend into canaliculi • Play role in bone repair • Cannot divide © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Osteoblasts (5.3) • Produce new bone matrix • Process called ossification • Make and release proteins and other organic compounds of the matrix • Osteocytes develop from osteoblasts that are surrounded by matrix © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Osteoclasts (5.3) • Giant cells with 50 or more nuclei • Derived from same stem cells as monocytes and macrophages • Remove and recycle bone matrix • Secrete acids and proteolytic enzymes to dissolve matrix and release stored minerals • Process called osteolysis © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone contains osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts Lamellae Osteoclast Osteocytes Canaliculi in lacunae interconnect the lacunae Osteoblast Uncalcified organic matrix Section of long bone © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.3 1 -12 – 3 Osteon Structure (5.3) • Osteon or Haversian system • Basic functional unit of mature compact bone • Central canal – contains arteries and veins • Matrix in concentric rings around central canal © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. An osteon is the basic functional unit of mature compact bone Central canal Osteon Osteocytes in lacunae Compact bone © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. LM x 375 Figure 5.3 14 Calcium Balance (5.3) • Calcium ion concentrations closely regulated • Rarely more than 10 percent fluctuation • Homeostatic regulation involves: • Skeleton • Osteoclasts erode matrix and release calcium • Osteoblasts use calcium to deposit new matrix • Intestines • Calcium and phosphate absorbed from the diet • Kidneys • Varying levels of calcium and phosphate ions lost in urine © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Homeostatic regulation of calcium ion levels Calcium and phosphate ions are absorbed in the intestines. Normal Ca2+ levels in plasma Calcium and phosphate ions are lost in the urine. Bone Balance between osteoblast and osteoclast activity is hormonally regulated. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.3 15 Module 5.3 Review a. Define osteocyte, osteoblast, and osteoclast. b. What is the basic functional unit of mature compact bone? c. If osteoclast activity exceeds osteoblast activity in a bone, what would be the effect on the bone? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Compact and Spongy Bone (5.4) • Compact bone • Osteons parallel to long axis of bone composed of: • Concentric rings (lamellae) of matrix with a • Central canal in the middle • Spongy bone • Network of struts and plates called trabeculae • No capillaries or venules in matrix • Lighter than compact bone © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Compact and spongy bone structure Arteriole (small artery) and venule (small vein) Central canal Lamellae Canaliculi Endosteum Periosteum Vein Artery Trabeculae © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.4 1 -12 – 3 Appositional Growth (5.4) • Diameter of bone enlarges through appositional growth • Occurs at outer surface • Cells in inner layer of periosteum differentiate into osteoblasts • Bone matrix added to the surface • Osteoblasts trapped between new lamellae differentiate into osteocytes • Collagen fibers from tendons, ligaments, joint capsule cemented into lamellae as perforating fibers © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Appositional growth model Additional lamellae Periosteum Periosteum Perforating fibers © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.4 14 Endosteum (5.4) • Incomplete cell layer lining marrow cavity • Active in bone growth, repair, and remodeling • Covers trabeculae of spongy bone • Lines inner surface of central canal • Exposed sites of matrix where osteoclasts and osteoblasts act © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Endosteum lining the marrow cavity Endosteum Osteoclast Lamellae Osteocyte Stem cell New organic matrix Osteoblast © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.4 15 Module 5.4 Review a. Define appositional growth. b. Distinguish between periosteum and endosteum. c. A sample of bone has lamellae that are not arranged in osteons. Is the sample more likely from the epiphysis or from the diaphysis? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Endochondral Ossification (5.5) • Most common method of bone formation • Involves replacement of cartilage with bone • Begins with cartilage model 1. Cartilage model enlarges • Chondrocytes near center of shaft enlarge • Enlarged chondrocytes die and disintegrate • Leaving cavities within cartilage © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Endochondral Ossification (5.5) 2. Blood vessels grow around edge of cartilage model • Cells of perichondrium convert to osteoblasts • Shaft of cartilage ensheathed in superficial layer of bone 3. Blood vessels penetrate cartilage into central region • Entering fibroblasts differentiate into osteoblasts • Begin producing spongy bone at ossification center • Bone formation spreads along shaft toward both ends © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Endochondral Ossification (5.5) 4. Growth continues along with remodeling • Marrow cavity created • Osseous tissue of shaft thickens • Cartilage near epiphyses is replaced by bone 5. Capillaries and osteoblasts migrate into epiphyses • Ossification centers form in epiphyses 6. Epiphyses filled with spongy bone • Articular cartilage on surface by joint cavity • Epiphyseal cartilage separates epiphysis from diaphysis © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Endochondral bone formation Hyaline cartilage Articular cartilage Epiphysis Enlarging chondrocytes within calcifying matrix Epiphysis Marrow cavity Blood vessel Diaphysis Perichondrium Ossification center Superficial bone Spongy bone Marrow cavity Spongy bone Epiphyseal cartilage Periosteum Compact bone Diaphysis Metaphysis Bone formation Hyaline cartilage © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Ossification center Figure 5.5 1 -12 – 6 Intramembranous Ossification (5.5) • Flat bones form by intramembranous ossification • Stem cells differentiate into osteoblasts within embryonic or fibrous connective tissue • Occurs in deeper dermal layers • Resulting bones – membrane bones • Examples: • Lower jaw • Skull bones • Patella © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Bone formation at 16 weeks Flat bones forming through intramembranous ossification Long bones forming through endochondral ossification © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.5 17 Epiphyseal Line (5.5) • Growth spurt at puberty in response to: • Sex hormones • Growth hormone • Thyroid hormone • Osteoblasts produce bone faster than chondrocytes produce epiphyseal cartilage • Epiphyseal cartilage thins and disappears • Former location seen on x-rays as epiphyseal line © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 5.5 Review a. Describe endochondral ossification. b. During intramembranous ossification, which type of tissue is replaced by bone? c. How could x-rays of the femur be used to determine whether a person has reached full height? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Atypical Skeletal Growth (5.6) • Pituitary growth failure • Inadequate growth hormone production • Reduced epiphyseal cartilage activity; abnormally short bones • Rare in United States; children treated with synthetic human growth hormone • Achondroplasia • Epiphyseal cartilage of long bones grows slowly • Short, stocky limbs result • Trunk normal size © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Pituitary growth failure © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.6 11 Achondroplasia © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.6 12 Marfan's Syndrome (5.6) • Inherited metabolic condition • Excessive cartilage formation at epiphyseal cartilages • Results in very tall person with long, slender limbs • Affects other connective tissues throughout body © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Marfan's syndrome © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.6 13 Gigantism and Acromegaly (5.6) • Gigantism • Overproduction of growth hormone before puberty • Produces height over 2.7 m (8 ft. 11 in.) • Puberty often delayed • Acromegaly • Overproduction of growth hormone after epiphyseal cartilages close • Bones get thicker, not longer, especially face, jaw, and hands © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Gigantism © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.6 14 Acromegaly © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.6 16 Heterotopic or Ectopic Bones (5.6) • Abnormal condition where stem cells in any connective tissue develop in osteoblasts • Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) • Single gene mutation • Causes deposition of bone around skeletal muscles • No effective treatment © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.6 15 Module 5.6 Review a. Describe Marfan's syndrome. b. Compare gigantism with acromegaly. c. Why is pituitary growth failure less common today in the United States? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Fracture and Repair (5.7) • A crack or break in bone is called a fracture • Repair of fracture involves four steps 1. Fracture hematoma (large blood clot) develops within several hours 2. Internal callus of spongy bone forms on inner edges; external callus of cartilage and bone stabilizes outer edges 3. Cartilage of external callus is replaced by bone; bone fragments and dead bone are removed and replaced 4. Remodeling over time eliminates evidence of fracture © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Repair of a fracture Repair of a Fracture Spongy bone of internal callus Cartilage of external callus Fracture Fracture hematoma hematoma Dead Bone bone fragments © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. External callus Spongy bone of external callus Periosteum Internal callus External callus Figure 5.7 1 -12 – 4 Basic Types of Fractures (5.7) • Fractures named according to external appearance, location, nature of break • Two broad categories 1. Closed (simple) fractures – completely internal; no break in skin 2. Open (compound) fractures – projects through skin • © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Increased risk of infection or uncontrolled bleeding Specific Types of Fractures (5.7) • Transverse fractures – break in shaft across long axis • Spiral fractures – produced by twisting stresses • Displaced fractures – produce abnormal bone alignment • Nondisplaced fractures – keep normal alignment of bones • Compression fractures – occur in vertebrae subjected to extreme stresses • Greenstick fractures – only one side of shaft broken; other side bent • Generally occur in children © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Specific Types of Fractures (5.7) • Comminuted fractures – bone is shattered into many fragments • Epiphyseal fractures – occur where bone matrix being calcified • Require careful treatment to avoid stopping bone growth • Pott's fracture – occurs at ankle; affects both bones of the leg • Colles fracture – break in distal portion of radius © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Types of fractures Types of Fractures Transverse fractures Comminuted fractures © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Spiral fractures Displaced fractures Epiphyseal fractures Compression fractures Pott's fracture Greenstick fracture Colles fracture Figure 5.7 15 Module 5.7 Review a. Define open fracture and closed fracture. b. List the steps involved in fracture repair, beginning just after the fracture occurs. c. When during fracture repair does an external callus form? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Skeleton (Section 2) • Axial skeleton – bones of skull and associated bones, thoracic cage, vertebral column • Supports and protects brain and spinal cord • Provides attachment surface for muscles that: • Adjust position of head, neck, and trunk • Perform respiratory movements • Stabilize parts of appendicular skeleton supporting limbs • Appendicular skeleton – bones of limbs and supporting girdles that connect limbs to trunk © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Skeletal system SKELETAL SYSTEM 206 80 APPENDICULAR SKELETON 126 AXIAL SKELETON Cranium 8 Skull and associated 29 bones Face Auditory 6 ossicles Hyoid Thoracic 25 cage 14 1 Sternum 1 Ribs 24 Clavicle 2 Scapula 2 Humerus 2 Radius 2 Ulna 2 Carpal bones 16 Pectoral 4 girdle Upper 60 limbs Metacarpal 10 bones Phalanges (proximal, 28 middle, distal) Vertebral 26 column Vertebrae 24 Hip bone (coxal bone) 2 Sacrum 1 Femur 2 Coccyx 1 Patella 2 Tibia 2 Fibula 2 Pelvic girdle 2 Lower 60 limbs Tarsal bones 14 Metatarsal 10 bones Phalanges 28 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5 Section 2 1 Function of Facial Bones (5.8) • Protect and support entrance to digestive and respiratory tracts • Provide areas for attachment of muscles controlling facial expression and assisting in eating © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Fourteen Facial Bones (5.8) • Nasal bones – support superior portion of bridge of nose • Lacrimal bones – form part of medial wall of orbit • Palatine bones – form posterior portion of hard palate and part of floor of orbit • Zygomatic bones – form part of cheekbone and part of lateral wall of orbit • Maxillae – support upper teeth and form inferior orbital rim, upper jaw, and most of hard palate • Inferior nasal conchae – increase turbulence in nasal cavity • Vomer – forms inferior portion of bony nasal septum • Mandible – forms lower jaw © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Cranial Bones (5.8) • Form cranium, which protects brain • Blood vessels, nerves, membranes attached to inner surface • Outer surface attachment point for muscles that move eyes, jaw, head • Frontal bone – forms anterior portion of cranium and roof of orbits; contains frontal sinuses • Sphenoid – forms part of floor of cranium; cross-brace strengthens sides of skull • Ethmoid – forms anteromedial floor of cranium, roof of nasal cavity, part of nasal septum and medial orbital wall © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Anterior view of the skull Cranial Bones Facial Bones Coronal suture Nasal bones Lacrimal bones Parietal bone Frontal bone Palatine bones Zygomatic bones Maxillae Sphenoid Ethmoid Inferior nasal conchae Vomer Mandible © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.8 11 Cranial Bones Seen on Posterior Skull (5.8) • Parietal bones – form part of superior and lateral surfaces of cranium • Occipital bone – contributes to posterior, lateral, and inferior cranial surface • External occipital crest – attachment point for ligament that helps stabilize vertebrae of neck • Temporal bones – form part of lateral wall of cranium • Articulate with mandible and facial bones • Surround sense organs of inner ear • Attachment site for muscles that close jaw and move head © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Sutures (5.8) • Connections between skull bones of adults; held together by dense fibrous connective tissue – immovable joints called sutures • Coronal suture – attaches frontal bone to parietal bones • Sagittal suture – attaches parietal bones to each other • Squamous suture – attaches temporal bones to parietal bones • Lambdoid suture – attaches occipital bone to parietal bones © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Posterior view of the skull Cranial Bones Sutures Parietal bone Coronal suture Occipital bone Sagittal suture Temporal bone Squamous suture Lambdoid suture External occipital crest © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Mandible Figure 5.8 12 Module 5.8 Review a. Identify the facial bones. b. Quincy suffers a hit to the skull that fractures the right superior lateral surface of his cranium. Which bone is fractured? c. Identify the following bones as either a facial bone or a cranial bone: vomer, ethmoid, sphenoid, temporal, and inferior nasal conchae. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Surface Features on the Skull – Lateral View (5.9) • Frontal squama (forehead) • Forms anterior, superior portion of cranium • Superior and inferior temporal lines • Low ridges; attachment points for temporalis muscle • Squamous part (squama) of temporal bone • Convex, irregular surface borders squamous suture • External acoustic meatus • Canal beginning on lateral surface and ending at tympanic membrane (eardrum) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Processes on the Skull – Lateral View (5.9) • Mastoid process – attachment site for muscles that rotate or tilt head • Condylar process – articulates with temporal bone • Styloid process – attached to several tendons and to ligaments that support hyoid bone • Coronoid process – insertion point for temporalis muscle • Zygomatic process of temporal bone – articulates with temporal process of zygomatic bone to form zygomatic arch • Mental protuberance – attachment site for facial muscles • Alveolar processes– support upper and lower teeth © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lateral view of the skull Coronal suture Frontal squama Sphenoid Superior and inferior Squamous temporal lines part of temporal bone Squamous suture External acoustic meatus Parietal bone Frontal bone Ethmoid Lacrimal bone Nasal bone Temporal bone Maxilla Alveolar processes Zygomatic bone Occipital bone Condylar process Mandible Mental protuberance © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Zygomatic arch Lambdoid suture Mastoid process Coronoid Styloid process process Figure 5.9 11 Surface Features on the Skull – Inferior View (5.9) • Mandibular fossa – site of articulation with mandible • Occipital condyles – sites of articulation between skull and first vertebra • Foramina • Foramen ovale – passage for nerves innervating jaws • Carotid canal – passage for internal carotid artery • Jugular foramen – passage for internal jugular vein • Foramen magnum – surrounds connection between brain and spinal cord © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Inferior view of the skull Zygomatic Frontal Palatine Maxilla Vomer bone bone bone Sphenoid Foramina Zygomatic arch Foramen ovale Styloid process Carotid canal Mandibular fossa Jugular foramen Temporal bone Occipital condyles Lambdoid suture Foramen magnum Occipital bone External occipital crest © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.9 12 Module 5.9 Review a. Identify the bone containing the carotid canal and name the structure that runs through this passageway. b. Name the bone and its foramen which forms the passageway for the spinal cord. c. The alveolar processes perform what functions in which bones? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Landmarks Visible in Horizontal Section of the Skull (5.10) • Crista galli • Ridge projecting superior to cribriform plate • Attachment point for falx cerebri (membrane that stabilizes brain position) • Cribriform plate • Contains olfactory foramina – passages for olfactory nerves • Sella turcica or Turkish saddle • Saddle-shaped enclosure on superior surface of sphenoid body • Internal acoustic meatus • Carries blood vessels and nerves to inner ear © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Horizontal section of the skull Crista galli Nasal bones Cribriform plate Frontal bone Ethmoid Sella turcica Sphenoid Temporal bone Carotid canal Foramen ovale Internal acoustic meatus Parietal bone Jugular foramen Occipital bone © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.10 11 Paranasal Sinuses (5.10) • Air-filled chambers connected to nasal cavities • Lighten skull bones • Provide extensive area of mucous epithelium • Frontal sinuses – variable in size and time of appearance • Ethmoidal air cells – network of small chambers; mucus from here flushes surfaces of nasal cavities • Sphenoid sinus • Maxillary sinuses – largest sinuses; mucus from here flushes inferior surface of nasal cavities © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Paranasal sinuses Frontal sinus Ethmoidal air cells Sphenoid sinus Maxilla Maxillary sinus Openings to nasal cavities Mandible © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.10 12 Nasal Complex Structures (5.10) • Sphenoidal sinuses • On sides of sphenoid body; variable in size; inferior to sella turcica • Ethmoid • Central plate contributes to nasal septum • Superior nasal conchae – project into nasal cavity • Middle nasal conchae – project into nasal cavity • Inferior nasal conchae • Separate bones – also project into nasal cavity on either side of nasal septum © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Sagittal section with nasal septum removed Frontal bone Frontal sinuses Sphenoidal sinuses Crista galli Sella turcica Lacrimal bone Nasal bone Sphenoid Ethmoid Superior nasal concha Middle nasal concha Inferior nasal concha Maxilla Hard palate © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Palatine bone Figure 5.10 13 Module 5.10 Review a. List at least five features of the ethmoid bone. b. Which bones contain paranasal sinuses? c. What roles do the paranasal sinuses play in the skull? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Associated Bones of the Skull (5.11) • Hyoid bone • Greater horns – help support larynx; attached to muscles that move tongue • Lesser horns – attached to ligaments that suspend hyoid and larynx • Body of hyoid – attachment site for muscles of larynx, tongue, pharynx • Auditory ossicles • Enclosed in temporal bone • Play a role in conducting vibrations to inner ear © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Associated bones of the skull SKULL FACE CRANIUM 14 Maxillary bones 2 Occipital bone Palatine bones 2 Parietal bones Nasal bones 2 Frontal bone Inferior nasal Temporal 2 conchae bones Sphenoid Zygomatic bones 2 Ethmoid Lacrimal bones 2 Vomer 1 Mandible 1 8 1 2 1 ASSOCIATED BONES 7 Hyoid bone 1 2 1 1 Auditory ossicles enclosed in 6 temporal bones (see Chapter 9) Greater horns Body of hyoid Lesser horns © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.11 11- 2– 2 Module 5.11 Review a. How many associated bones of the skull are there? b. Describe the location and function of the auditory ossicles. c. Is your lab partner correct when she claims that the hyoid bone does not directly join (articulate with) any other bone? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Fontanelles (5.12) • Flexible fibrous connective tissue connects cranial bones at birth; allows skull shape distortion during birth • Anterior fontanelle – "soft spot"; persists until nearly 2 years old • Occipital fontanelle – junction between lambdoid and sagittal suture; disappears within month or two after birth • Sphenoidal fontanelle – on each side; between squamous and coronal sutures • Mastoid fontanelle – on each side; between squamous and lambdoid suture © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Fontalles of the skull Coronal suture Sphenoid fontanelle Frontal bone Parietal bone Squamous suture Mastoid fontanelle Nasal bone Temporal bone Maxilla Sphenoid Mandible Frontal suture Frontal bone Lambdoid suture Occipital bone Parietal bone Sagittal suture Anterior fontanelle Frontal bone Parietal bone Lambdoid suture Occipital fontanelle Occipital bone Coronal suture © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.12 11- 2– 2 Module 5.12 Review a. Define fontanelle. b. Identify the major fontanelles. c. What purposes do fontanelles serve? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Vertebral Column (5.13) • 26 bones (24 vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx) • Averages 71 cm (28 in.) • Provides column of support – transfers body's weight to lower limbs • Protects spinal cord • Maintains upright position © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Spinal Curves (5.13) • Primary curves (develop before birth) and secondary curves (develop after birth) • Cervical curve – secondary; develops as infant learns to balance weight of head on neck • Thoracic curve – primary; accommodates thoracic organs • Lumbar curve – secondary; develops with ability to stand; balances weight of trunk over lower limbs • Sacral curve – primary; accommodates abdominopelvic organs © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Vertebral Regions (5.13) • Cervical (7 vertebrae – C1 to C7) • Thoracic (12 vertebrae – T1 to T12) • Lumbar (5 vertebrae – L1 to L5) • Sacral • Coccygeal © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Vertebral regions and spinal curves Vertebral Regions Spinal Curves Cervical curve Thoracic curve T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 Cervical (7 vertebrae) T6 Thoracic (12 vertebrae) T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 L1 Lumbar curve L2 L3 L4 Lumbar (5 vertebrae) L5 Sacral curve Sacral Coccygeal © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.13 11 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.13 1 Parts of a Vertebra (5.13) • Three basic parts 1. Articular processes • Extend superiorly and inferiorly to articulate with adjacent vertebrae 2. Vertebral arch • Forms posterior and lateral margins of vertebral foramen 3. Vertebral body • © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Transfers weight along axis of vertebral column Basic parts of a vertebra Parts of a Vertebra Articular processes Vertebral arch Vertebral body Superior view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.13 12 Four Parts of a Vertebral Arch (5.13) 1. Spinous process • Projects posteriorly from point where laminae fuse 2. Laminae • Form "roof" of vertebral foramen • Vertebral foramen – framed by the vertebral body and vertebral arch 3. Transverse processes • Project laterally on both sides; sites of muscle attachment 4. Pedicles • Form sides of vertebral arch © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Sections of the vertebral arch The Vertebral Arch Vertebral foramen Spinous process Laminae Transverse processes Pedicles Inferior view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.13 13 Vertebral Canal (5.13) • Encloses spinal cord • Formed by vertebral foramina of successive vertebrae • Bodies of adjacent vertebrae interconnected by ligaments • Adjacent vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs – pads of fibrocartilage • Spaces between successive pedicles – intervertebral foramina • Passageway for nerves and blood vessels © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lateral view of vertebrae showing vertebral canal Pedicle Intervertebral discs Intervertebral foramina Vertebral body Vertebral canal © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.13 14 Articular Processes and Facets (5.13) • Superior articular processes • Articulate with inferior articular process of more superior vertebra • Inferior articular processes • Articulate with superior articular processes of more inferior vertebra (or sacrum) • Articular facet • Smooth, concave surface on each articular process © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Articular processes of vertebrae Articular facet Superior articular processes Inferior articular processes © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.13 15 Module 5.13 Review a. Name the major components of a typical vertebra. b. What is the importance of the secondary curves of the spine? c. To which part of the vertebra do the intervertebral discs attach? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Cervical Vertebra Structure (5.14) • Smallest vertebrae in vertebral column • All 7 have transverse foramen – allows passage of vertebral arteries and vertebral veins • Short, stumpy transverse process • C2–C6 have bifid spinous process • C7 has large spinous process ending in tubercle • Can be felt through skin • Elastic ligament connects from here to occipital bone © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Superior view of cervical vertebra Bifid spinous process Transverse foramen Vertebral foramen Short and stumpy transverse process Vertebral body Cervical vertebra (superior view) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.14 11 Spinous process on C7 Spinous process of C7 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.14 13 First Two Cervical Vertebrae (5.14) • Specialized to support and stabilize cranium • Atlas, C1 • No vertebral body or spinous process • Large, round vertebral foramen • Articulates with occipital condyles – permits nodding "yes" • Axis, C2 • Prominent dens, superior projection on body • Dens bound to atlas by transverse ligament – permits rotation as in shaking head "no" © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The first two cervical vertebrae are the atlas and axis Anterior arch of atlas C1 is called the atlas Dens Articulation point between occipital condyles and atlas Transverse ligament binding dens to anterior arch of atlas Axis Posterior arch of atlas © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.14 12 Thoracic Vertebra (5.14) • Twelve thoracic vertebrae • Each one slightly larger as they move inferiorly • Heart-shaped body • Long, slender spinous process projects posteriorly and inferiorly • Costal facets on vertebral body for rib articulation • T1–T10 also have costal facets on transverse processes © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Characteristics of thoracic vertebrae Transverse process Long, slender spinous process Costal facet on vertebral body Costal facet on transverse process Vertebral body Superior articular facet Superior costal facet Vertebral foramen Vertebral body Thoracic vertebra (superior view) Inferior costal facet Transverse process Thoracic vertebra (lateral view) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.14 14- 2– 6 Module 5.14 Review a. Joe suffered a hairline fracture at the base of the dens. Which bone is fractured and where is the fractured bone located? b. Examining a human vertebra, you notice that, in addition to the large foramen for the spinal cord, two smaller foramina are on either side of the bone in the region of the transverse processes. From which region of the vertebral column is this vertebra? c. When you run your finger down the middle of a person's spine, what part of each vertebra are you feeling just beneath the skin? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Five Lumbar Vertebrae (5.15) • Largest vertebrae (transmit most weight) • Thicker body than thoracic vertebra • Superior and inferior surfaces oval • No costal facets • Slender transverse processes • Triangular vertebral foramen • Stumpy spinous process • Superior articular processes face medially • Inferior articular processes face laterally © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Characteristics of lumbar vertebrae L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 Superior articular process Transverse process Sacrum Pedicle Spinous process Vertebral body Coccyx Inferior articular process Spinous Lateral view process Lamina Transverse process Superior articular process Vertebral foramen Pedicle Vertebral body Superior view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.15 11- 2– 2 The Sacrum (5.15) • Five fused vertebrae (begin fusing after puberty; completed by age 25–30) • Protects reproductive, digestive, urinary organs • Attaches axial skeleton to appendicular skeleton • Anterior surface concave; posterior surface convex • Base – broad superior surface • Ala or wing – extends to each side from base • Apex – narrow, inferior portion • Transverse lines – former boundaries of individual vertebrae © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Sacral Surface Features (5.15) • Sacral promontory – landmark for labor and delivery • Sacral foramina – intervertebral foramina open into these • Sacral canal – passageway for nerves and membranes • Sacral tuberosity – attachment site of sacro-iliac joint ligaments • Auricular surface – site of articulation with hip bones (sacro-iliac joint) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Sacral Surface Features (5.15) • Lateral sacral crest – represents fused transverse processes of sacral vertebrae • Median sacral crest – formed by fused spinous processes of sacral vertebrae • Sacral hiatus – opening at inferior end of sacral canal • Superior articular process – articulates with last lumbar vertebra • Coccyx – 3 to 5 fused coccygeal vertebrae (begins fusing by around age 26) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Sacrum and coccyx Base Sacral ala Sacral foramina Sacral promontory Transverse lines Apex Coccyx Sacral canal Superior articular process Median sacral crest Sacral hiatus Sacral tuberosity Auricular surface Lateral sacral crest Coccyx © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.15 13- 2– 4 Module 5.15 Review a. How many vertebrae are present in the lumbar region? In the sacrum? b. What structure forms the posterior wall of the pelvic girdle? c. Why are the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae so large? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Thoracic Cage (5.16) • Provides bony support to walls of thoracic cavity • Protects heart, lungs, and thymus • Composed of thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum • Attachment point for muscles involved in: 1. Breathing 2. Maintaining position of vertebral column 3. Movements of pectoral girdle and upper limbs © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Ribs and Sternum (5.16) • Ribs • True ribs (1–7) – connected to sternum by individual costal cartilages • False ribs (8–10) – connected to sternum by shared costal cartilages • Floating or vertebral ribs (11–12) – no connection to sternum • Sternum • Manubrium – trapezoid-shaped; articulates with clavicle and first pair of ribs • Body – articulates with rib pairs 2–7 • Xiphoid process – attached to inferior portion of body © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Thoracic cage location Jugular notch Ribs T1 Sternum 1 2 3 True ribs Manubrium 4 5 Body 6 7 False ribs 8 11 9 12 T11 T12 10 Xiphoid process Floating or vertebral ribs Costal cartilage © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.16 11 Module 5.16 Review a. How are true ribs distinguished from false ribs? b. What are the three parts of the sternum? c. In addition to the ribs and sternum, what other bones make up the thoracic cage? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Kyphosis (5.17) • Exaggerated thoracic curvature gives "round- back" appearance • Caused by: 1. Osteoporosis with compression fractures on anterior part of vertebral bodies 2. Chronic contraction in muscles inserting on vertebrae 3. Abnormal vertebral growth © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Kyphosis © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.17 11 Scoliosis (5.17) • Abnormal lateral curvature of spine • Most common distortion of vertebral column • Caused by: • Developmental problems • Damage to vertebral bodies • Muscular paralysis affecting one side of back • Idiopathic (unknown cause) • Treatment • Bracing or surgery for severe cases © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Scoliosis © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.17 12 Lordosis (5.17) • Anterior exaggeration of lumbar curvature – "swayback" • Causes of lordosis: • Pregnancy • Abdominal obesity • Weakness in abdominal wall muscles © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lordosis © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.17 13 Module 5.17 Review a. List three causes of kyphosis. b. How might pregnancy contribute to the development of lordosis? c. Which condition is primarily associated with lateral distortion of the spine? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Pectoral Girdle (5.18) • Connects upper limbs to trunk • Consists of: • Two S-shaped clavicles • Articulate with manubrium (sternal end) and: • Acromion of scapula (acromial end) • Flat, broader end • Two broad, flat scapulae © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Anterior view of the pectoral girdle Clavicle Jugular notch Scapula Humerus Anterior view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.18 11 Superior and inferior views of right clavicle LATERAL Superior view of right clavicle Acromial end LATERAL © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. MEDIAL Sternal end Inferior view of right clavicle MEDIAL Figure 5.18 12 Scapula (5.18) • Anterior surface of body – triangle formed by: • Superior border • Medial (vertebral) border • Lateral (axillary) border • Corners of triangle are superior angle, inferior angle, lateral angle (location of glenoid cavity) • Subscapular fossa – depression in anterior surface © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Scapula (5.18) • Posterior surface – convex with prominent ridges and depressions • Scapular spine • Supraspinous fossa – depression superior to scapular spine • Infraspinous fossa – depression inferior to scapular spine © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Anterior and posterior views of right scapula Acromion Coracoid Superior process border Scapular spine Acromion Superior angle Subscapular fossa Glenoid cavity Lateral border Anterior view of right scapula © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Supraspinous fossa Medial border Inferior angle Infraspinous fossa Posterior view of right scapula Figure 5.18 13- 2– 4 Scapula Structures – Lateral View (5.18) • Glenoid cavity • Articulates with humerus • Acromion • Large process that extends laterally • Projects posterior and superior to glenoid cavity • Continuous with scapular spine • Coracoid process • Projects anterior and superior to glenoid cavity © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lateral view of right scapula Coracoid process Glenoid cavity Acromion © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lateral view of right scapula Figure 5.18 15 Module 5.18 Review a. Name the bones of the pectoral girdle. b. How would a broken clavicle affect the mobility and stability of the scapula? c. Which bone articulates with the scapula at the glenoid cavity? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Humerus (5.19) • Articulates with scapula at proximal end and ulna and radius at distal end • Surface features include: • Head – articulates with glenoid cavity of scapula • Greater tubercle (lateral, larger) and lesser (medial) tubercle • Intertubercular groove – between tubercles; groove for tendon • Anatomical neck and surgical neck (typical fracture site) • Deltoid tuberosity – rough elevation where deltoid muscle attaches • Radial groove – path of radial nerve © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Humerus Distal End (5.19) • Medial and lateral epicondyles • Projections above condyles • Capitulum • Forms lateral surface of condyle • Articulation point for radius • Trochlea • Spool-shaped medial portion of condyle • Extends from olecranon fossa (posterior) to coronoid fossa (anterior) • Articulation point for ulna © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Anterior and posterior views of right humerus Anterior Posterior Head view view Greater Greater tubercle tubercle Lesser tubercle Intertubercular groove Anatomical neck Shaft Surgical neck Radial groove Deltoid tuberosity Lateral epicondyle Capitulum © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Coronoid fossa Olecranon Medial fossa epicondyle Trochlea Trochlea Figure 5.19 11 Forearm Bones – Ulna (5.19) • In anatomical position, ulna is medial to radius • Olecranon – point of elbow; projects into olecranon fossa • Coronoid process – projects into coronoid fossa of humerus • Trochlear notch – articulates with trochlea of humerus • Radial notch – articulates with head of radius at proximal radio-ulnar joint • Ulnar head –articulates with radius to form distal radioulnar joint • Styloid process – attached to head © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Forearm Bones – Radius (5.19) • Radius surface features • Radial head – articulates with capitulum of humerus • Neck – extends from radial head to radial tuberosity • Radial tuberosity – attachment site for biceps brachii muscle • Styloid process – distal end; articulates with wrist bones • Interosseous membrane • Fibrous sheet connecting shafts of ulna and radius © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Posterior and anterior views of right ulna and radius Posterior view Olecranon Anterior view Trochlear notch Radial head Neck of radius Coronoid process Proximal Radial notch at Radial tuberosity radio-ulnar proximal radio-ulnar joint joint Ulna Radius Radius Ulna Interosseous membrane Ulnar notch Ulnar head Styloid process of the radius Styloid process of the ulna © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Distal radio-ulnar joint Ulnar head Figure 5.19 12 Module 5.19 Review a. Identify the bones of the arm and forearm. b. Identify the two rounded projections on either side of the elbow, and state to which bone they belong. c. Which bone of the forearm is positioned laterally while in the anatomical position? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges (5.20) • Carpus (wrist) has eight carpal bones arranged in two rows • Proximal (scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform) • Distal (trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate) • Five metacarpal bones • Articulate with distal carpal bones • Identified by Roman numerals I–V starting on lateral side • Phalanges • Articulate with metacarpals • 14 on each hand (3 for each finger; 2 for the thumb or pollex) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Bones of the wrist and hand Proximal Carpal Bones Scaphoid Lunate Triquetrum Pisiform Ulna Radius V Proximal phalanx Middle phalanx Distal phalanx © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. I IV III Distal Carpal Bones Trapezium Trapezoid Capitate Hamate II Metacarpal bones Right wrist and hand, posterior (dorsal) view Figure 5.20 11 Module 5.20 Review a. Define phalanges. b. Name the carpal bones. c. Bill accidentally fractures his first distal phalanx with a hammer. Which finger is broken? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Pelvic Girdle (5.21) • Composed of two hip bones (coxal bones) • Hip bone formed by fusion of: 1. Ilium 2. Ischium 3. Pubis • Pubic symphysis – fibrocartilage pad connecting right and left pubic bones © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The pelvic girdle Ilium Pubis Pubic symphysis Ischium © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.21 11 Hip Bone Landmarks (5.21) • Iliac spines – attachment sites for muscles and ligaments • Gluteal lines – attachment points for large hip muscles • Greater sciatic notch – passageway for sciatic nerve • Iliac crest – ridge for muscle attachment • Ischial spine – inferior to greater sciatic notch • Ischial tuberosity – bears body's weight when seated • Acetabulum – articulation point for femur • Obturator foramen – closed by sheet of collagen fibers; bounded by ischial ramus, inferior pubic ramus, superior pubic ramus © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lateral view of the hip bone Iliac crest Anterior superior iliac spine Gluteal lines Ilium ANTERIOR Posterior superior iliac spine Posterior inferior iliac spine Greater sciatic notch Acetabulum Ischial spine Ischium Pubis Ischial ramus © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Ischial tuberosity Figure 5.21 12 Module 5.21 Review a. Describe the acetabulum. b. Which three bones fuse to make up the hip bone? c. When you are seated, which part of the hip bone bears your body's weight? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. The Pelvis (5.22) • Consists of two hip bones, sacrum, and coccyx • Held together by extensive network of ligaments • Sacro-iliac joint • Articulation between sacrum and ilium • Union between axial and appendicular skeleton © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Pelvic bones Sacrum Hip Bone Ilium Coccyx Pubis Ischium © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.22 11 Pelvic bone markings Iliac crest L5 Iliac fossa Ilium Sacrum Sacro-iliac joint Acetabulum Pubic tubercle Obturator foramen Ischium Anterior view Pubic symphysis © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.22 11 False Pelvis and True Pelvis (5.22) • Can divide pelvis into: • False (greater) pelvis • Encloses organs in inferior portion of abdominal cavity • True (lesser) pelvis • Encloses pelvic cavity • Pelvic brim – bony margin of true pelvis • Pelvic inlet – opening enclosed by pelvic brim • Pelvic outlet – opening bounded by coccyx, ischial tuberosities, ischial spines, and inferior border pubic symphysis © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Superior and inferior views of the pelvis Superior view Inferior view Pelvic outlet False pelvis Pelvic brim © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Ischial spine Pelvic inlet Pelvic outlet Figure 5.22 12 Male and Female Pelvis Structure (5.22) • Female pelvis versus male pelvis • Smoother, lighter, and with less prominent markings • Adapted for childbearing • Enlarged pelvic outlet • Broader pubic angle, greater than 100° • Less curvature on sacrum and coccyx • Wider, more circular pelvic inlet • Broad, low pelvis • Ilia project farther laterally but not as superiorly © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Male vs. female pelvic shape Male Ischial spine Female 90˚ or less Ischial spine 100˚ or more © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.22 13 Module 5.22 Review a. Name the bones of the pelvis. b. The pubic bones are joined anteriorly by what structure? c. How is the pelvis of females adapted for childbearing? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Femur (5.23) • Longest and heaviest bone in body • Articulates with hip bone and tibia • Major landmarks • Femoral head – articulates with pelvis at acetabulum • Neck – joins head to shaft at about 125°angle • Greater trochanter (larger, lateral) and lesser trochanter (smaller, medial) • Intertrochanteric line – marks edge of articular capsule • Gluteal tuberosity – attachment site for gluteus maximus muscle • Linea aspera – attachment site of hip muscles © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Distal End of the Femur (5.23) • Medial and lateral condyles • Articulate with tibia to form knee joint • Patellar surface • Anterior surface of femur; smooth surface for patella to glide over • Intercondylar fossa • Posterior surface of femur between condyles © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Anterior and posterior views of the left femur Neck Greater trochanter Pit in femoral head for ligament attachment to acetabulum Greater trochanter Femoral head Intertrochanter line Lesser trochanter Intertrochanteric crest Gluteal tuberosity Linea aspera Shaft Lateral supracondylar ridge Patellar surface Lateral epicondyle Medial epicondyle Lateral condyle Anterior view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Medial condyle Intercondylar fossa Lateral epicondyle Lateral condyle Posterior view Figure 5.23 11- 2– 2 Tibia and Fibula (5.23) • Tibia (shinbone) • Larger, medial bone of leg • Proximal end – medial and lateral tibial condyles articulate with medial and lateral condyles of femur • Intercondylar eminence – ridge separating condyles • Fibula • Small, slender bone • Does not participate in knee joint; does not bear weight • Attachment site for muscles moving foot and toes © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Tibia and Fibula Landmarks (5.23) • Tibia (shinbone) • Tibial tuberosity – attachment point for patellar ligament • Anterior crest – ridge along anterior tibial surface • Medial malleolus – provides medial stability to ankle joint • Fibula • Head – articulates with tibia • Lateral malleolus – provides lateral stability to ankle joint • Interosseous membrane • Helps stabilize bone positions; additional surface area for muscle attachment © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Anterior and posterior views of the right tibia and fibula Superior tibiofibular joint Articular surface of medial tibial condyle Intercondylar eminence Lateral tibial condyle Head of fibula Medial tibial condyle Articular surface of lateral tibial condyle Tibial tuberosity Lateral tibial condyle Head of fibula Interosseous membrane Anterior crest Fibula Tibia Inferior articular surface Medial malleolus Lateral malleolus Anterior view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Fibula Inferior tibiofibular joint Lateral malleolus (fibula) Posterior view Figure 5.23 13 Module 5.23 Review a. Identify the bones of the lower limb. b. Which structure articulates with the acetabulum? c. The fibula neither participates in the knee joint nor bears weight. Yet, when it is fractured, walking becomes difficult. Why? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Ankle and Foot (5.24) • Ankle has seven tarsal bones • Calcaneus (heel bone; connects to calcaneal or Achilles tendon), talus (articulates with tibia), navicular, cuboid • Three cuneiform bones (medial, intermediate, lateral) • Five metatarsal bones • Articulate with distal surface of cuboid and cuneiform bones • Identified by Roman numerals I–V starting on medial side • Phalanges • Articulate with metatarsals • 14 on each foot (2 for the great toe or hallux; 3 for each other toe) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Bones of the ankle and foot The Ankle Calcaneus Talus Trochlea of talus Navicular Cuboid Cuneiform bones Metatarsals Metatarsal bones articulate with the cuboid and cuneiform bones. V IV III II I Metatarsal bones I - V Proximal phalanx Distal phalanx Phalanges © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Hallux Superior view Figure 5.24 11 Arches of the Foot (5.24) • Longitudinal arch • Formed due to ligaments and tendons connecting calcaneus to distal part of metatarsal bones • Allows for weight transfer depending on position of foot • Differences in elasticity result in elevation of medial plantar surface • Transverse arch • Due to degree of longitudinal curvature changing from medial to lateral border © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lateral and medial views of the foot Lateral surface of trochlea of talus Cuboid bone Navicular Cuneiform bones bone Metatarsal bones (I–V) Phalanges Lateral view Calcaneal tendon attachment III II I IV V Phalanges Metatarsal Navicular Talus Medial bone cuneiform bones bone Medial view I Calcaneus Longitudinal arch Transverse arch © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.24 12 Congenital Talipes Equinovarus (5.24) • Improper arch development in foot • Common name "clubfoot" • Abnormal muscle development distorts growing bones • May involve one or both feet • Ranges from mild to moderate to severe • Longitudinal arch exaggerated • Feet turned medially and inverted • Affects 1 in 1000 births; more common in males • Treated with casts and supports; possible surgery © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Module 5.24 Review a. Identify the tarsal bones. b. Which foot bone transmits the weight of the body from the tibia toward the toes? c. While jumping off the back steps at his house, 10-year old Joey lands on his right heel and breaks his foot. Which foot bone is most likely broken? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Joint Structure and Movement (Section 3) • Movements in skeleton occur at articulations or joints where two bones interconnect • Amount of movement or range of motion (ROM) determined by anatomical structure • Functionally categorized as: • Synarthrosis – no movement • Amphiarthrosis – little movement • Diarthrosis – free movement © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Synarthrosis (Section 3) • Functionally no movement • Bones close together or interlocked • Suture – fibrous connection with interlocking surfaces • Gomphosis – fibrous connection and insertion into bony socket • Synchondrosis – cartilaginous connection (cartilage between two bones) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Amphiarthrosis and Diarthrosis (Section 3) • Amphiarthrosis • Permits more movement than synarthrosis • Stronger than freely movable joint • Bones connected by collagen fibers or cartilage • Fibrous – syndesmosis – bones connected by ligament • Cartilaginous – symphysis – bones connected by fibrocartilage pad • Diarthrosis – free movement • Synovial – complex joints with joint capsules and synovial fluid © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5 Section 3 1 Synovial Joints (5.25) • Allow free movement • Components of synovial joints • Articular cartilages – line ends of each bone; no perichondrium; matrix has more water than other cartilages • Joint capsule or articular capsule – dense and fibrous; may be reinforced with tendons and ligaments • Synovial fluid – lubricates, cushions, prevents abrasion, and supports chondrocytes • Produced by synovial membrane lining joint cavity © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Components of synovial joints Components of Synovial Joints Marrow cavity Periosteum Articular cartilage Joint capsule Synovial membrane Synovial fluid Spongy bone of epiphysis Compact bone © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.25 11 Functions of Synovial Fluid (5.25) • Lubrication • During compression of joint, synovial fluid squeezed into space between opposing surfaces • Thin layer of fluid reduces friction between moving surfaces • Nutrient distribution • Articular cartilage compresses and re-expands with movement • Pumps synovial fluid into and out of cartilage matrix • Circulating synovial fluid provides nutrients and waste disposal • Shock absorption • As joint is compressed, synovial fluid distributes forces evenly across articular surfaces and outward to joint capsule © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Knee Joint and Dislocation (5.25) • Accessory structures supporting the knee • Bursa – small, fluid-filled pocket containing synovial fluid; lined by synovial membrane; reduces friction and acts as shock absorber • Fat pads – localized masses of adipose tissue; lined by synovial membrane; protect articular cartilages; fill in spaces • Meniscus – pad of fibrocartilage; allows for variations in articular surface shapes • Accessory ligaments – support, strengthen, and reinforce • Dislocation – articular surfaces forced out of position © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Accessory structures supporting the knee Tendon of quadriceps muscles Accessory Structures Supporting the Knee Bursa Patella Synovial membrane Joint capsule Fat pads Femur Meniscus Joint cavity Articular cartilage Tibia Accessory ligaments Patellar ligament © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.25 13 Module 5.25 Review a. Define dislocation. b. Describe the components of a synovial joint, and identify the function of each. c. Why would improper circulation of synovial fluid lead to the degeneration of articular cartilages in the affected joint? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Types of Synovial Joints (5.26) • Gliding – permits sliding motion in any direction on relatively flat surface • Hinge – permits movement in only one plane • Pivot – permits rotation around axis • Condylar – permits movement in two planes; prevents rotation • Saddle – permits more extensive motion in two planes; prevents rotation • Ball-and-socket – permits movements in multiple directions plus rotation © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Models of Joint Motion Types of Synovial Joints Gliding joint • Acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joints • Intercarpal and intertarsal joints • Vertebrocostal joints • Sacro-iliac joints Manubrium Hinge joint Humerus Ulna Pivot joint Examples Atlas • Elbow joints • Knee joints • Ankle joints • Interphalangeal joints • Atlas/axis • Proximal radio-ulnar joints Axis Condylar joint Scaphoid bone Radius • Radiocarpal joints • Metacarpophalangeal joints 2–5 • Metatarsophalangeal joints Ulna Saddle joint • First carpometacarpal joints III II Metacarpal bone of thumb Trapezium Ball-and-socket joint Scapula • Shoulder joints • Hip joints Humerus © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.26 1 Module 5.26 Review a. Identify the types of synovial joints. b. What type of synovial joint permits the widest range of motion? c. Indicate the type of synovial joint for each of the following: shoulder, elbow, and thumb. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Intervertebral Discs (5.27) • Pads of fibrocartilage separating adjacent vertebrae • Composed of fibrous pad with gelatinous core • Bulging disc • Stresses distort intervertebral disc and force it partway into vertebral canal • Herniated disc • Intervertebral disc projecting posteriorly into vertebral canal impacting spinal nerves © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Lateral view of bulging disc T12 Normal intervertebral disc L1 Bulging disc L2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.27 11 Superior view of herniated disc Compressed area of spinal nerve Spinal nerve Gelatinous core of herniated disc Spinal cord Intervertebral disc © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.27 12 Osteoporosis (5.27) • Normal aging – bones become thinner and weaker • Begins between ages of 30–40 • Osteoblast activity declines; osteoclast activity stays same level • Women lose 8 percent skeletal mass each decade after age 40 • Men lose 3 percent skeletal mass each decade after age 40 • Osteoporosis • Condition when loss of bone mass compromises function • Contributes to vertebral fractures in elderly © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Normal spongy bone and spongy bone with osteoporosis Normal spongy bone © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. SEM x 25 Spongy bone with osteoporosis SEM x 21 Figure 5.27 13 Clinical scan of compression fracture in lumbar vertebra Clinical scan of a compression fracture in a lumbar vertebra © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.27 12 Module 5.27 Review a. What is the function of an intervertebral disc? b. Compare a bulging disc and a herniated disc. c. What is osteoporosis? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Arthritis (5.28) • Rheumatism • General term indicating pain and stiffness in bones and/or muscles • Arthritis • All rheumatic diseases that affect synovial joints • Involves damage to articular cartilages • Osteoarthritis • Affects age 60 or older • From cumulative effects of wear and tear on joints or possible genetic factors • Affects 25 percent of women and 15 percent of men over age 60 in the United States © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Normal and arthritic joints Normal Joint Arthritic Joint Fibrous remains of the articular cartilage Articular cartilage LM x 180 Arthroscopic view of normal cartilage © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. LM x 180 Degenerating articular cartilage Arthroscopic view of damaged cartilage Figure 5.28 11- 2– 2 Arthroscope (5.28) • Optical fibers within a narrow tube • Used to explore joints without major surgery • Arthroscopic surgery • Inserting flexible instruments through second incision to perform surgery © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Arthroscopic view of knee joint cavity Femoral condyle Meniscus Ligaments within the joint cavity © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.28 13 Artificial Joints (5.28) • Available for multiple synovial joints • Can restore mobility and relieve pain • Service life of about 10 years • Joint replacement is a stressful procedure © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Artificial joints Artificial hip Artificial shoulder © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Artificial knee Figure 5.28 14 Module 5.28 Review a. Compare rheumatism to osteoarthritis. b. Explain the use of an arthroscope. c. What can a person do to slow the progression of arthritis? © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.