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prepared by
Betsy C. Brantley
Valencia College
CHAPTER
5
The Skeletal
System
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes
• Section 1: An Introduction to the Bones of the Skeletal System
• 5.1
• Classify bones according to their shapes, and describe the
major types of surface features.
• 5.2
• Identify the parts of a typical long bone, state the locations of
compact bone and spongy bone, and describe the internal
anatomy of a long bone.
• 5.3
• Name the three cell types in bone, identify their major functions,
and summarize calcium homeostasis.
• 5.4
• Compare the structure and functions of compact bone and
spongy bone.
• 5.5
• Summarize endochondral ossification.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes
• 5.6
• CLINICAL MODULE Discuss various clinical disorders
associated with abnormal bone growth and development.
• 5.7
• CLINICAL MODULE Describe various types of fractures and
explain how fractures heal.
• Section 2: The Skeleton
• 5.8
• Identify the bones of the face and cranium, and identify and
locate the cranial sutures.
• 5.9
• Identify and describe the surface features of the skull.
• 5.10
• Label landmarks seen on sectional views of the skull, and
identify and describe components of the nasal complex.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes
• 5.11
• List associated bones of the skull, and discuss the hyoid bone,
including functions and features.
• 5.12
• Define fontanelles, explain their purpose, and describe key
structural differences among the skulls of infants, children, and
adults.
• 5.13
• Identify and describe the curves of the spinal column and their
function, identify the vertebral regions, and describe the parts of
a vertebra.
• 5.14
• Describe the distinctive structural and functional characteristics
of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae.
• 5.15
• Describe the distinctive structural and functional characteristics
of the lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes
• 5.16
• Describe the thoracic cage, and explain the significance of the
articulations between the thoracic vertebrae and the ribs and
between the ribs and the sternum.
• 5.17
• CLINICAL MODULE Compare and contrast kyphosis, scoliosis,
and lordosis.
• 5.18
• Identify the bones that form the pectoral girdle, their functions,
and their superficial features.
• 5.19
• Identify the bones of the arm and forearm, their functions, and
their superficial features.
• 5.20
• Identify the bones of the wrist and hand, and describe their
locations using anatomical terminology.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes
• 5.21
• Describe the hip bones that form the pelvic girdle, their
functions, and their superficial features.
• 5.22
• Identify the bones of the pelvis, and discuss the structural and
functional differences between the male pelvis and the female
pelvis.
• 5.23
• Identify the bones of the thigh and leg, their functions, and their
superficial features.
• 5.24
• Identify the bones of the ankle and foot, and describe their
locations using anatomical terminology.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 5 Learning Outcomes
• Section 3: Joint Structure and Movement
• 5.25
• Describe the basic structure of a synovial joint, and describe
common accessory structures and their functions.
• 5.26
• Explain the relationship between structure and function for each
type of synovial joint.
• 5.27
• CLINICAL MODULE Describe clinical disorders related to
intervertebral discs and porous bone.
• 5.28
• CLINICAL MODULE Explain arthritis, and describe its effects on
joint structure and function.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Bones of the Skeletal
System (Section 1)
• Skeletal system
• Includes about 206 bones
• Also includes cartilages, ligaments, connective tissue
• Divided into:
• Axial skeleton
• Includes bones of the skull, thorax, vertebral column
• Forms the longitudinal axis of the body
• Appendicular skeleton
• Includes bones of the limbs and pectoral and pelvic girdles
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Axial and appendicular skeleton
Axial Skeleton
(80 Bones)
Appendicular
Skeleton (126 Bones)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5 Section 1 1 1
Functions of the Skeletal System (Section 1)
• Vital functions of the skeletal system include:
• Support
• Storage of minerals
• Blood cell production
• Protection
• Movement
• Functions depend on unique and dynamic
properties of bone tissue
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Support and Storage of Mineral (Section 1)
• Skeletal system provides structural support for body
• Framework for attachment of soft tissues and organs
• Skeletal system stores minerals
• Body needs to maintain normal concentrations of circulating
calcium and phosphate
• Calcium and phosphate held in reserve as part of bone
structure
• Calcium most abundant mineral in human body
• Body normally contains 1-2kg calcium
• 98% of that contained in bones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protection and Production (Section 1)
• Skeletal system provides protection for tissues
and organs
• Ribs protect heart and lungs
• Skull encloses brain
• Vertebrae shield spinal cord
• Pelvis cradles digestive and reproductive organs
• Skeletal system site of blood cell production
• Red bone marrow (filling spongy bone spaces) site of
production for red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Skeletal System and Movement (Section 1)
• Skeletal system works with muscular system to
allow movement
• Bones function as levers
• Change magnitude and direction of forces generated by
skeletal muscles
• Allow movements from delicate fingertip motion to powerful
changes in body position
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bone Classification (5.1)
•
Bones are classified by shape into four categories
1. Flat
2. Long
3. Irregular
4. Short
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Flat Bones (5.1)
• Thin, nearly parallel surfaces
• Form roof of skull, sternum, ribs, scapulae
• Protect underlying soft tissue
• Extensive surface area for skeletal muscle
attachment
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Long Bones (5.1)
• Relatively long and slender
• Located in arm, forearm, thigh, leg, palms, soles,
fingers, toes
• Femur (long bone of thigh) is largest and heaviest
bone in body
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Irregular Bones (5.1)
• Have complex shapes with short, flat, notched, or
ridged surfaces
• Include spinal vertebrae, bones of pelvis, several
skull bones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Short Bones (5.1)
• Small and boxy
• Include bones in wrist (carpal bones) and in ankles
(tarsal bones)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bones are classified by their shape
Flat Bones
Parietal
bone
Long Bones
Humerus
Irregular Bones
Vertebra
Short Bones
Carpal
bones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.1 11
Surface Features (5.1)
• Bone markings
• Characteristic external and internal features
related to particular functions called surface
features
• Elevations or projections for tendon and ligament attachment
• Depressions, grooves, tunnels for blood vessel or nerve
passage
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Surface Features – General (5.1)
• Head – expanded proximal end of a bone that
forms part of a joint
• Diaphysis or shaft – elongated body of a long
bone
• Neck – narrow connection between head and
diaphysis of a bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Surface Features – Elevations or Projections
(5.1)
• Process – any projection or bump
• Tubercle – small, rounded projection
• Tuberosity – small, rough projection that takes up
a broad area
• Trochlea – smooth, grooved articular process
shaped like a pulley
• Condyle – smooth, rounded articular process
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Surface Features – Elevations or Projections
(5.1)
• Trochanter – large, rough projection
• Facet – small, flat articular surface
• Crest – prominent ridge
• Line – low ridge, more delicate than a crest
• Spine – pointed or narrow process
• Ramus – extension of a bone that makes an angle
with rest of structure
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Surface Features – Depressions, Grooves, and
Tunnels (5.1)
• Canal or meatus – large passageway through a bone
• Sinus – chamber within a bone, normally filled with air
• Foramen – small, rounded passageway for blood vessels
or nerves to pass through bone
• Fissure – elongated cleft or gap
• Sulcus – deep, narrow groove
• Fossa – shallow depression or recess in surface of bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Surface features of the skull
1
Surface Features of the Skull
Sinus
Canal or meatus
Foramen
Process
Fissure
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.1 12
Surface features of the humerus
2
Surface Features of the Humerus
Head
Tubercle
Sulcus
Tuberosity
Diaphysis
Trochanter
Condyle
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.1 12
Surface features of the femur
3
Surface Features of the Femur
Trochanter
Head
Neck
Diaphysis
Facet
Condyle
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.1 12
Surface features of the pelvis
4
Surface Features of the Pelvis
Crest
Fossa
Line
Spine
Ramus
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.1 12
Module 5.1 Review
a. Define surface feature.
b. Identify the four broad categories for classifying a
bone according to shape.
c. Compare a tubercle with a tuberosity.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Typical Long Bone Structure (5.2)
• Epiphysis
• Expanded area at each end of the bone
• Diaphysis (shaft)
• Long and tubular portion of the bone
• Wall composed of thick layer of compact bone
• Articular cartilage
• Covers parts of the epiphysis that articulate with other bones
• Avascular
• Relies on diffusion from synovial fluid for nutrients and waste
elimination
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Marrow Cavity (5.2)
• Space within the shaft of a long bone
• Filled with bone marrow
• Red bone marrow – involved in red blood cell production
• Yellow bone marrow – adipose tissue; energy reserve
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Features of a long bone
Epiphysis
Marrow cavity
Diaphysis
Compact bone
Articular cartilage
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Epiphysis
Figure 5.2 1 -12 – 2
Long Bone Components (5.2)
• Epiphysis
• Composed mostly of spongy bone
• Network of struts and plates
• Resembles latticework
• Spongy bone covered with thin layer of compact bone
• Periosteum
• Connective tissue wrapper around superficial layer of compact bone
• Isolates bone from surrounding tissues
• Plays a role in bone growth and repair
• Extensive network of arteries and veins in epiphysis and shaft
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Extensive blood supply in bones
Epiphyseal artery
and vein
Spongy bone
in the epiphysis
Periosteum
Extensive network of
arteries and veins
Compact bone
Marrow cavity
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.2 13
Collagen and Calcium Phosphate (5.2)
• Bones composed of:
• Collagen
• One-third of weight of bone
• Strong and flexible
• Bends if compressed
• Calcified matrix (calcium phosphate)
• Two-thirds of weight of bone
• Found in crystals
• Hard, inflexible, brittle
• Combination of collagen and calcified crystals make bone strong,
somewhat flexible, and highly resistant to shattering
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bone without calcified matrix
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.2 14
Module 5.2 Review
a. List the major parts of a long bone.
b. Describe the function of the marrow cavity.
c. How would the compressive strength of a bone
be affected if the ratio of collagen to calcium
phosphate increased?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bone Cells (5.3)
•
Both compact and spongy bone contain three
types of cells
1. Osteocytes
2. Osteoblasts
3. Osteoclasts
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Osteocytes (5.3)
• Mature bone cells that maintain matrix
• Secrete chemicals that dissolve matrix
• Rebuild matrix – stimulating deposition of mineral crystals
• Matrix formed in layers – lamellae
• Osteocytes in lacuna
• Processes of osteocytes extend into canaliculi
• Play role in bone repair
• Cannot divide
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Osteoblasts (5.3)
• Produce new bone matrix
• Process called ossification
• Make and release proteins and other organic
compounds of the matrix
• Osteocytes develop from osteoblasts that are
surrounded by matrix
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Osteoclasts (5.3)
• Giant cells with 50 or more nuclei
• Derived from same stem cells as monocytes and
macrophages
• Remove and recycle bone matrix
• Secrete acids and proteolytic enzymes to dissolve
matrix and release stored minerals
• Process called osteolysis
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bone contains osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts
Lamellae
Osteoclast
Osteocytes Canaliculi
in lacunae interconnect
the lacunae
Osteoblast
Uncalcified
organic
matrix
Section of
long bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.3 1 -12 – 3
Osteon Structure (5.3)
• Osteon or Haversian system
• Basic functional unit of mature compact bone
• Central canal – contains arteries and veins
• Matrix in concentric rings around central canal
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
An osteon is the basic functional unit of mature compact bone
Central canal
Osteon
Osteocytes in
lacunae
Compact bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
LM x 375
Figure 5.3 14
Calcium Balance (5.3)
• Calcium ion concentrations closely regulated
• Rarely more than 10 percent fluctuation
• Homeostatic regulation involves:
• Skeleton
• Osteoclasts erode matrix and release calcium
• Osteoblasts use calcium to deposit new matrix
• Intestines
• Calcium and phosphate absorbed from the diet
• Kidneys
• Varying levels of calcium and phosphate ions lost in urine
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Homeostatic regulation of calcium ion levels
Calcium and
phosphate ions are
absorbed in the
intestines.
Normal
Ca2+
levels in
plasma
Calcium and
phosphate
ions are lost
in the urine.
Bone
Balance between
osteoblast and
osteoclast activity is
hormonally regulated.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.3 15
Module 5.3 Review
a. Define osteocyte, osteoblast, and osteoclast.
b. What is the basic functional unit of mature
compact bone?
c. If osteoclast activity exceeds osteoblast activity in
a bone, what would be the effect on the bone?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Compact and Spongy Bone (5.4)
• Compact bone
• Osteons parallel to long axis of bone composed of:
• Concentric rings (lamellae) of matrix with a
• Central canal in the middle
• Spongy bone
• Network of struts and plates called trabeculae
• No capillaries or venules in matrix
• Lighter than compact bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Compact and spongy bone structure
Arteriole (small artery) and
venule (small vein)
Central canal
Lamellae
Canaliculi
Endosteum
Periosteum
Vein
Artery
Trabeculae
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.4 1 -12 – 3
Appositional Growth (5.4)
• Diameter of bone enlarges through appositional growth
• Occurs at outer surface
• Cells in inner layer of periosteum differentiate into osteoblasts
• Bone matrix added to the surface
• Osteoblasts trapped between new lamellae differentiate into
osteocytes
• Collagen fibers from tendons, ligaments, joint capsule cemented
into lamellae as perforating fibers
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Appositional growth model
Additional
lamellae
Periosteum
Periosteum
Perforating fibers
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.4 14
Endosteum (5.4)
• Incomplete cell layer lining marrow cavity
• Active in bone growth, repair, and remodeling
• Covers trabeculae of spongy bone
• Lines inner surface of central canal
• Exposed sites of matrix where osteoclasts and
osteoblasts act
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Endosteum lining the marrow cavity
Endosteum
Osteoclast
Lamellae
Osteocyte
Stem cell
New organic
matrix
Osteoblast
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.4 15
Module 5.4 Review
a. Define appositional growth.
b. Distinguish between periosteum and endosteum.
c. A sample of bone has lamellae that are not
arranged in osteons. Is the sample more likely
from the epiphysis or from the diaphysis?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Endochondral Ossification (5.5)
• Most common method of bone formation
• Involves replacement of cartilage with bone
• Begins with cartilage model
1. Cartilage model enlarges
•
Chondrocytes near center of shaft enlarge
•
Enlarged chondrocytes die and disintegrate
•
Leaving cavities within cartilage
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Endochondral Ossification (5.5)
2. Blood vessels grow around edge of cartilage
model
•
Cells of perichondrium convert to osteoblasts
•
Shaft of cartilage ensheathed in superficial layer of bone
3. Blood vessels penetrate cartilage into central
region
•
Entering fibroblasts differentiate into osteoblasts
•
Begin producing spongy bone at ossification center
•
Bone formation spreads along shaft toward both ends
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Endochondral Ossification (5.5)
4. Growth continues along with remodeling
•
Marrow cavity created
•
Osseous tissue of shaft thickens
•
Cartilage near epiphyses is replaced by bone
5. Capillaries and osteoblasts migrate into epiphyses
•
Ossification centers form in epiphyses
6. Epiphyses filled with spongy bone
•
Articular cartilage on surface by joint cavity
•
Epiphyseal cartilage separates epiphysis from diaphysis
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Endochondral bone formation
Hyaline cartilage
Articular cartilage
Epiphysis
Enlarging
chondrocytes within
calcifying matrix
Epiphysis
Marrow
cavity
Blood
vessel
Diaphysis
Perichondrium
Ossification
center
Superficial
bone
Spongy
bone
Marrow
cavity
Spongy
bone
Epiphyseal
cartilage
Periosteum
Compact
bone
Diaphysis
Metaphysis
Bone
formation
Hyaline cartilage
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ossification
center
Figure 5.5 1 -12 – 6
Intramembranous Ossification (5.5)
• Flat bones form by intramembranous ossification
• Stem cells differentiate into osteoblasts within embryonic or fibrous
connective tissue
• Occurs in deeper dermal layers
• Resulting bones – membrane bones
• Examples:
• Lower jaw
• Skull bones
• Patella
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bone formation at 16 weeks
Flat bones forming through
intramembranous
ossification
Long bones forming
through
endochondral
ossification
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.5 17
Epiphyseal Line (5.5)
• Growth spurt at puberty in response to:
• Sex hormones
• Growth hormone
• Thyroid hormone
• Osteoblasts produce bone faster than chondrocytes
produce epiphyseal cartilage
• Epiphyseal cartilage thins and disappears
• Former location seen on x-rays as epiphyseal line
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 5.5 Review
a. Describe endochondral ossification.
b. During intramembranous ossification, which type
of tissue is replaced by bone?
c. How could x-rays of the femur be used to
determine whether a person has reached full
height?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Atypical Skeletal Growth (5.6)
• Pituitary growth failure
• Inadequate growth hormone production
• Reduced epiphyseal cartilage activity; abnormally short bones
• Rare in United States; children treated with synthetic human growth
hormone
• Achondroplasia
• Epiphyseal cartilage of long bones grows slowly
• Short, stocky limbs result
• Trunk normal size
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Pituitary growth failure
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.6 11
Achondroplasia
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.6 12
Marfan's Syndrome (5.6)
• Inherited metabolic condition
• Excessive cartilage formation at epiphyseal
cartilages
• Results in very tall person with long, slender limbs
• Affects other connective tissues throughout body
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Marfan's syndrome
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.6 13
Gigantism and Acromegaly (5.6)
• Gigantism
• Overproduction of growth hormone before puberty
• Produces height over 2.7 m (8 ft. 11 in.)
• Puberty often delayed
• Acromegaly
• Overproduction of growth hormone after epiphyseal cartilages close
• Bones get thicker, not longer, especially face, jaw, and hands
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Gigantism
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.6 14
Acromegaly
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.6 16
Heterotopic or Ectopic Bones (5.6)
• Abnormal condition where stem cells in any
connective tissue develop in osteoblasts
• Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP)
• Single gene mutation
• Causes deposition of bone around skeletal muscles
• No effective treatment
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.6 15
Module 5.6 Review
a. Describe Marfan's syndrome.
b. Compare gigantism with acromegaly.
c. Why is pituitary growth failure less common
today in the United States?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fracture and Repair (5.7)
•
A crack or break in bone is called a fracture
•
Repair of fracture involves four steps
1. Fracture hematoma (large blood clot) develops within
several hours
2. Internal callus of spongy bone forms on inner edges;
external callus of cartilage and bone stabilizes outer
edges
3. Cartilage of external callus is replaced by bone; bone
fragments and dead bone are removed and replaced
4. Remodeling over time eliminates evidence of fracture
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Repair of a fracture
Repair of a Fracture
Spongy
bone of
internal
callus
Cartilage
of external
callus
Fracture
Fracture
hematoma
hematoma
Dead
Bone
bone fragments
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
External
callus
Spongy bone
of external callus
Periosteum
Internal
callus
External
callus
Figure 5.7 1 -12 – 4
Basic Types of Fractures (5.7)
•
Fractures named according to external
appearance, location, nature of break
•
Two broad categories
1. Closed (simple) fractures – completely internal; no break
in skin
2. Open (compound) fractures – projects through skin
•
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Increased risk of infection or uncontrolled bleeding
Specific Types of Fractures (5.7)
• Transverse fractures – break in shaft across long axis
• Spiral fractures – produced by twisting stresses
• Displaced fractures – produce abnormal bone alignment
• Nondisplaced fractures – keep normal alignment of bones
• Compression fractures – occur in vertebrae subjected to
extreme stresses
• Greenstick fractures – only one side of shaft broken;
other side bent
• Generally occur in children
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Specific Types of Fractures (5.7)
• Comminuted fractures – bone is shattered into
many fragments
• Epiphyseal fractures – occur where bone matrix
being calcified
• Require careful treatment to avoid stopping bone growth
• Pott's fracture – occurs at ankle; affects both
bones of the leg
• Colles fracture – break in distal portion of radius
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Types of fractures
Types of Fractures
Transverse
fractures
Comminuted
fractures
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Spiral
fractures
Displaced
fractures
Epiphyseal fractures
Compression
fractures
Pott's
fracture
Greenstick
fracture
Colles
fracture
Figure 5.7 15
Module 5.7 Review
a. Define open fracture and closed fracture.
b. List the steps involved in fracture repair,
beginning just after the fracture occurs.
c. When during fracture repair does an external
callus form?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Skeleton (Section 2)
• Axial skeleton – bones of skull and associated bones,
thoracic cage, vertebral column
• Supports and protects brain and spinal cord
• Provides attachment surface for muscles that:
• Adjust position of head, neck, and trunk
• Perform respiratory movements
• Stabilize parts of appendicular skeleton supporting limbs
• Appendicular skeleton – bones of limbs and supporting
girdles that connect limbs to trunk
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Skeletal system
SKELETAL SYSTEM 206
80
APPENDICULAR SKELETON 126
AXIAL SKELETON
Cranium 8
Skull and
associated 29
bones
Face
Auditory 6
ossicles
Hyoid
Thoracic 25
cage
14
1
Sternum 1
Ribs
24
Clavicle
2
Scapula
2
Humerus
2
Radius
2
Ulna
2
Carpal bones 16
Pectoral 4
girdle
Upper 60
limbs
Metacarpal
10
bones
Phalanges
(proximal, 28
middle, distal)
Vertebral 26
column
Vertebrae 24
Hip bone
(coxal bone)
2
Sacrum 1
Femur
2
Coccyx 1
Patella
2
Tibia
2
Fibula
2
Pelvic
girdle
2
Lower 60
limbs
Tarsal bones 14
Metatarsal 10
bones
Phalanges 28
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5 Section 2 1
Function of Facial Bones (5.8)
• Protect and support entrance to digestive and
respiratory tracts
• Provide areas for attachment of muscles
controlling facial expression and assisting in eating
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fourteen Facial Bones (5.8)
• Nasal bones – support superior portion of bridge of nose
• Lacrimal bones – form part of medial wall of orbit
• Palatine bones – form posterior portion of hard palate and part of floor
of orbit
• Zygomatic bones – form part of cheekbone and part of lateral wall of
orbit
• Maxillae – support upper teeth and form inferior orbital rim, upper jaw,
and most of hard palate
• Inferior nasal conchae – increase turbulence in nasal cavity
• Vomer – forms inferior portion of bony nasal septum
• Mandible – forms lower jaw
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cranial Bones (5.8)
• Form cranium, which protects brain
• Blood vessels, nerves, membranes attached to inner surface
• Outer surface attachment point for muscles that move eyes, jaw,
head
• Frontal bone – forms anterior portion of cranium and roof of
orbits; contains frontal sinuses
• Sphenoid – forms part of floor of cranium; cross-brace
strengthens sides of skull
• Ethmoid – forms anteromedial floor of cranium, roof of nasal
cavity, part of nasal septum and medial orbital wall
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anterior view of the skull
Cranial Bones
Facial Bones
Coronal suture
Nasal bones
Lacrimal bones
Parietal bone
Frontal bone
Palatine bones
Zygomatic bones
Maxillae
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Inferior nasal
conchae
Vomer
Mandible
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.8 11
Cranial Bones Seen on Posterior Skull (5.8)
• Parietal bones – form part of superior and lateral surfaces
of cranium
• Occipital bone – contributes to posterior, lateral, and
inferior cranial surface
• External occipital crest – attachment point for ligament that
helps stabilize vertebrae of neck
• Temporal bones – form part of lateral wall of cranium
• Articulate with mandible and facial bones
• Surround sense organs of inner ear
• Attachment site for muscles that close jaw and move head
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sutures (5.8)
• Connections between skull bones of adults; held
together by dense fibrous connective tissue –
immovable joints called sutures
• Coronal suture – attaches frontal bone to parietal bones
• Sagittal suture – attaches parietal bones to each other
• Squamous suture – attaches temporal bones to parietal
bones
• Lambdoid suture – attaches occipital bone to parietal bones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Posterior view of the skull
Cranial Bones
Sutures
Parietal bone
Coronal suture
Occipital bone
Sagittal suture
Temporal bone
Squamous
suture
Lambdoid
suture
External occipital
crest
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mandible
Figure 5.8 12
Module 5.8 Review
a. Identify the facial bones.
b. Quincy suffers a hit to the skull that fractures the
right superior lateral surface of his cranium.
Which bone is fractured?
c. Identify the following bones as either a facial
bone or a cranial bone: vomer, ethmoid,
sphenoid, temporal, and inferior nasal conchae.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Surface Features on the Skull – Lateral View
(5.9)
• Frontal squama (forehead)
• Forms anterior, superior portion of cranium
• Superior and inferior temporal lines
• Low ridges; attachment points for temporalis muscle
• Squamous part (squama) of temporal bone
• Convex, irregular surface borders squamous suture
• External acoustic meatus
• Canal beginning on lateral surface and ending at tympanic
membrane (eardrum)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Processes on the Skull – Lateral View (5.9)
• Mastoid process – attachment site for muscles that rotate or tilt
head
• Condylar process – articulates with temporal bone
• Styloid process – attached to several tendons and to ligaments
that support hyoid bone
• Coronoid process – insertion point for temporalis muscle
• Zygomatic process of temporal bone – articulates with
temporal process of zygomatic bone to form zygomatic arch
• Mental protuberance – attachment site for facial muscles
• Alveolar processes– support upper and lower teeth
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lateral view of the skull
Coronal
suture
Frontal
squama
Sphenoid
Superior and inferior Squamous
temporal lines
part of
temporal bone
Squamous
suture
External
acoustic
meatus
Parietal
bone
Frontal
bone
Ethmoid
Lacrimal
bone
Nasal bone
Temporal
bone
Maxilla
Alveolar
processes
Zygomatic
bone
Occipital
bone
Condylar
process
Mandible
Mental
protuberance
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Zygomatic
arch
Lambdoid
suture
Mastoid
process
Coronoid Styloid process
process
Figure 5.9 11
Surface Features on the Skull – Inferior View
(5.9)
• Mandibular fossa – site of articulation with mandible
• Occipital condyles – sites of articulation between skull
and first vertebra
• Foramina
• Foramen ovale – passage for nerves innervating jaws
• Carotid canal – passage for internal carotid artery
• Jugular foramen – passage for internal jugular vein
• Foramen magnum – surrounds connection between brain and
spinal cord
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Inferior view of the skull
Zygomatic Frontal Palatine Maxilla Vomer
bone
bone
bone
Sphenoid
Foramina
Zygomatic arch
Foramen ovale
Styloid process
Carotid canal
Mandibular fossa
Jugular foramen
Temporal bone
Occipital condyles
Lambdoid suture
Foramen magnum
Occipital
bone
External occipital crest
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.9 12
Module 5.9 Review
a. Identify the bone containing the carotid canal and
name the structure that runs through this
passageway.
b. Name the bone and its foramen which forms the
passageway for the spinal cord.
c. The alveolar processes perform what functions in
which bones?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Landmarks Visible in Horizontal Section of the
Skull (5.10)
• Crista galli
• Ridge projecting superior to cribriform plate
• Attachment point for falx cerebri (membrane that stabilizes brain position)
• Cribriform plate
• Contains olfactory foramina – passages for olfactory nerves
• Sella turcica or Turkish saddle
• Saddle-shaped enclosure on superior surface of sphenoid body
• Internal acoustic meatus
• Carries blood vessels and nerves to inner ear
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Horizontal section of the skull
Crista galli
Nasal bones
Cribriform plate
Frontal bone
Ethmoid
Sella turcica
Sphenoid
Temporal bone
Carotid canal
Foramen ovale
Internal acoustic
meatus
Parietal bone
Jugular foramen
Occipital bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.10 11
Paranasal Sinuses (5.10)
• Air-filled chambers connected to nasal cavities
• Lighten skull bones
• Provide extensive area of mucous epithelium
• Frontal sinuses – variable in size and time of appearance
• Ethmoidal air cells – network of small chambers; mucus
from here flushes surfaces of nasal cavities
• Sphenoid sinus
• Maxillary sinuses – largest sinuses; mucus from here
flushes inferior surface of nasal cavities
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Paranasal sinuses
Frontal sinus
Ethmoidal air
cells
Sphenoid sinus
Maxilla
Maxillary sinus
Openings to
nasal cavities
Mandible
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.10 12
Nasal Complex Structures (5.10)
• Sphenoidal sinuses
• On sides of sphenoid body; variable in size; inferior to sella turcica
• Ethmoid
• Central plate contributes to nasal septum
• Superior nasal conchae – project into nasal cavity
• Middle nasal conchae – project into nasal cavity
• Inferior nasal conchae
• Separate bones – also project into nasal cavity on either side of
nasal septum
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sagittal section with nasal septum removed
Frontal bone
Frontal sinuses
Sphenoidal sinuses
Crista galli
Sella turcica
Lacrimal bone
Nasal bone
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Superior nasal
concha
Middle nasal
concha
Inferior nasal
concha
Maxilla Hard
palate
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Palatine
bone
Figure 5.10 13
Module 5.10 Review
a. List at least five features of the ethmoid bone.
b. Which bones contain paranasal sinuses?
c. What roles do the paranasal sinuses play in the
skull?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Associated Bones of the Skull (5.11)
• Hyoid bone
• Greater horns – help support larynx; attached to muscles
that move tongue
• Lesser horns – attached to ligaments that suspend hyoid
and larynx
• Body of hyoid – attachment site for muscles of larynx,
tongue, pharynx
• Auditory ossicles
• Enclosed in temporal bone
• Play a role in conducting vibrations to inner ear
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Associated bones of the skull
SKULL
FACE
CRANIUM
14
Maxillary bones 2 Occipital bone
Palatine bones 2 Parietal bones
Nasal bones
2
Frontal bone
Inferior nasal
Temporal
2
conchae
bones
Sphenoid
Zygomatic bones 2
Ethmoid
Lacrimal bones 2
Vomer
1
Mandible
1
8
1
2
1
ASSOCIATED BONES 7
Hyoid bone 1
2
1
1
Auditory ossicles
enclosed in
6
temporal bones
(see Chapter 9)
Greater horns
Body of hyoid
Lesser
horns
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.11 11- 2– 2
Module 5.11 Review
a. How many associated bones of the skull are
there?
b. Describe the location and function of the auditory
ossicles.
c. Is your lab partner correct when she claims that
the hyoid bone does not directly join (articulate
with) any other bone?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fontanelles (5.12)
• Flexible fibrous connective tissue connects cranial bones at
birth; allows skull shape distortion during birth
• Anterior fontanelle – "soft spot"; persists until nearly 2 years
old
• Occipital fontanelle – junction between lambdoid and sagittal
suture; disappears within month or two after birth
• Sphenoidal fontanelle – on each side; between squamous and
coronal sutures
• Mastoid fontanelle – on each side; between squamous and
lambdoid suture
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fontalles of the skull
Coronal suture
Sphenoid fontanelle
Frontal
bone
Parietal
bone
Squamous suture
Mastoid fontanelle
Nasal bone
Temporal
bone
Maxilla
Sphenoid
Mandible
Frontal suture
Frontal
bone
Lambdoid suture
Occipital bone
Parietal
bone
Sagittal suture
Anterior fontanelle
Frontal
bone
Parietal
bone
Lambdoid suture
Occipital fontanelle
Occipital bone
Coronal suture
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.12 11- 2– 2
Module 5.12 Review
a. Define fontanelle.
b. Identify the major fontanelles.
c. What purposes do fontanelles serve?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Vertebral Column (5.13)
• 26 bones (24 vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx)
• Averages 71 cm (28 in.)
• Provides column of support – transfers body's
weight to lower limbs
• Protects spinal cord
• Maintains upright position
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Spinal Curves (5.13)
• Primary curves (develop before birth) and
secondary curves (develop after birth)
• Cervical curve – secondary; develops as infant learns to
balance weight of head on neck
• Thoracic curve – primary; accommodates thoracic organs
• Lumbar curve – secondary; develops with ability to stand;
balances weight of trunk over lower limbs
• Sacral curve – primary; accommodates abdominopelvic
organs
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Vertebral Regions (5.13)
• Cervical (7 vertebrae – C1 to C7)
• Thoracic (12 vertebrae – T1 to T12)
• Lumbar (5 vertebrae – L1 to L5)
• Sacral
• Coccygeal
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Vertebral regions and spinal curves
Vertebral Regions
Spinal Curves
Cervical curve
Thoracic curve
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
Cervical
(7 vertebrae)
T6
Thoracic
(12 vertebrae)
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
T12
L1
Lumbar curve
L2
L3
L4
Lumbar
(5 vertebrae)
L5
Sacral curve
Sacral
Coccygeal
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.13 11
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.13 1
Parts of a Vertebra (5.13)
•
Three basic parts
1. Articular processes
•
Extend superiorly and inferiorly to articulate with
adjacent vertebrae
2. Vertebral arch
•
Forms posterior and lateral margins of vertebral foramen
3. Vertebral body
•
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Transfers weight along axis of vertebral column
Basic parts of a vertebra
Parts of a Vertebra
Articular processes
Vertebral arch
Vertebral body
Superior view
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.13 12
Four Parts of a Vertebral Arch (5.13)
1. Spinous process
•
Projects posteriorly from point where laminae fuse
2. Laminae
•
Form "roof" of vertebral foramen
•
Vertebral foramen – framed by the vertebral body and
vertebral arch
3. Transverse processes
•
Project laterally on both sides; sites of muscle attachment
4. Pedicles
•
Form sides of vertebral arch
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sections of the vertebral arch
The Vertebral Arch
Vertebral foramen
Spinous process
Laminae
Transverse processes
Pedicles
Inferior view
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.13 13
Vertebral Canal (5.13)
• Encloses spinal cord
• Formed by vertebral foramina of successive
vertebrae
• Bodies of adjacent vertebrae interconnected by
ligaments
• Adjacent vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs –
pads of fibrocartilage
• Spaces between successive pedicles –
intervertebral foramina
• Passageway for nerves and blood vessels
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lateral view of vertebrae showing vertebral canal
Pedicle
Intervertebral discs
Intervertebral foramina
Vertebral
body
Vertebral canal
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.13 14
Articular Processes and Facets (5.13)
• Superior articular processes
• Articulate with inferior articular process of more superior
vertebra
• Inferior articular processes
• Articulate with superior articular processes of more
inferior vertebra (or sacrum)
• Articular facet
• Smooth, concave surface on each articular process
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Articular processes of vertebrae
Articular facet
Superior articular processes
Inferior articular processes
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.13 15
Module 5.13 Review
a. Name the major components of a typical
vertebra.
b. What is the importance of the secondary curves
of the spine?
c. To which part of the vertebra do the intervertebral
discs attach?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cervical Vertebra Structure (5.14)
• Smallest vertebrae in vertebral column
• All 7 have transverse foramen – allows passage
of vertebral arteries and vertebral veins
• Short, stumpy transverse process
• C2–C6 have bifid spinous process
• C7 has large spinous process ending in tubercle
• Can be felt through skin
• Elastic ligament connects from here to occipital bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Superior view of cervical vertebra
Bifid spinous process
Transverse foramen
Vertebral
foramen
Short and stumpy
transverse process
Vertebral body
Cervical vertebra
(superior view)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.14 11
Spinous process on C7
Spinous process
of C7
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.14 13
First Two Cervical Vertebrae (5.14)
• Specialized to support and stabilize cranium
• Atlas, C1
• No vertebral body or spinous process
• Large, round vertebral foramen
• Articulates with occipital condyles – permits nodding "yes"
• Axis, C2
• Prominent dens, superior projection on body
• Dens bound to atlas by transverse ligament – permits
rotation as in shaking head "no"
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The first two cervical vertebrae are the atlas and axis
Anterior
arch of
atlas
C1 is called the atlas
Dens
Articulation point
between occipital
condyles and atlas
Transverse ligament
binding dens to
anterior arch of atlas
Axis
Posterior arch
of atlas
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.14 12
Thoracic Vertebra (5.14)
• Twelve thoracic vertebrae
• Each one slightly larger as they move inferiorly
• Heart-shaped body
• Long, slender spinous process projects posteriorly
and inferiorly
• Costal facets on vertebral body for rib articulation
• T1–T10 also have costal facets on transverse processes
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Characteristics of thoracic vertebrae
Transverse
process
Long, slender
spinous process
Costal facet
on vertebral
body
Costal facet on
transverse process
Vertebral
body
Superior
articular
facet
Superior
costal facet
Vertebral
foramen
Vertebral
body
Thoracic vertebra
(superior view)
Inferior costal facet
Transverse process
Thoracic vertebra
(lateral view)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.14 14- 2– 6
Module 5.14 Review
a. Joe suffered a hairline fracture at the base of the dens.
Which bone is fractured and where is the fractured bone
located?
b. Examining a human vertebra, you notice that, in addition
to the large foramen for the spinal cord, two smaller
foramina are on either side of the bone in the region of the
transverse processes. From which region of the vertebral
column is this vertebra?
c. When you run your finger down the middle of a person's
spine, what part of each vertebra are you feeling just
beneath the skin?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Five Lumbar Vertebrae (5.15)
• Largest vertebrae (transmit most weight)
• Thicker body than thoracic vertebra
• Superior and inferior surfaces oval
• No costal facets
• Slender transverse processes
• Triangular vertebral foramen
• Stumpy spinous process
• Superior articular processes face medially
• Inferior articular processes face laterally
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Characteristics of lumbar vertebrae
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
Superior
articular
process
Transverse
process
Sacrum
Pedicle
Spinous
process
Vertebral
body
Coccyx
Inferior articular
process
Spinous
Lateral view
process
Lamina
Transverse
process
Superior
articular
process
Vertebral
foramen
Pedicle
Vertebral
body
Superior view
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.15 11- 2– 2
The Sacrum (5.15)
• Five fused vertebrae (begin fusing after puberty; completed
by age 25–30)
• Protects reproductive, digestive, urinary organs
• Attaches axial skeleton to appendicular skeleton
• Anterior surface concave; posterior surface convex
• Base – broad superior surface
• Ala or wing – extends to each side from base
• Apex – narrow, inferior portion
• Transverse lines – former boundaries of individual
vertebrae
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sacral Surface Features (5.15)
• Sacral promontory – landmark for labor and delivery
• Sacral foramina – intervertebral foramina open into these
• Sacral canal – passageway for nerves and membranes
• Sacral tuberosity – attachment site of sacro-iliac joint
ligaments
• Auricular surface – site of articulation with hip bones
(sacro-iliac joint)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sacral Surface Features (5.15)
• Lateral sacral crest – represents fused transverse
processes of sacral vertebrae
• Median sacral crest – formed by fused spinous processes
of sacral vertebrae
• Sacral hiatus – opening at inferior end of sacral canal
• Superior articular process – articulates with last lumbar
vertebra
• Coccyx – 3 to 5 fused coccygeal vertebrae (begins fusing
by around age 26)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sacrum and coccyx
Base
Sacral ala
Sacral foramina
Sacral
promontory
Transverse
lines
Apex
Coccyx
Sacral canal
Superior articular
process
Median sacral
crest
Sacral hiatus
Sacral tuberosity
Auricular
surface
Lateral sacral
crest
Coccyx
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.15 13- 2– 4
Module 5.15 Review
a. How many vertebrae are present in the lumbar
region? In the sacrum?
b. What structure forms the posterior wall of the
pelvic girdle?
c. Why are the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae so
large?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Thoracic Cage (5.16)
•
Provides bony support to walls of thoracic cavity
•
Protects heart, lungs, and thymus
•
Composed of thoracic vertebrae, ribs, sternum
•
Attachment point for muscles involved in:
1. Breathing
2. Maintaining position of vertebral column
3. Movements of pectoral girdle and upper limbs
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ribs and Sternum (5.16)
• Ribs
• True ribs (1–7) – connected to sternum by individual costal
cartilages
• False ribs (8–10) – connected to sternum by shared costal
cartilages
• Floating or vertebral ribs (11–12) – no connection to sternum
• Sternum
• Manubrium – trapezoid-shaped; articulates with clavicle and first
pair of ribs
• Body – articulates with rib pairs 2–7
• Xiphoid process – attached to inferior portion of body
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Thoracic cage location
Jugular notch
Ribs
T1
Sternum
1
2
3
True ribs
Manubrium
4
5
Body
6
7
False ribs
8
11
9
12
T11
T12
10
Xiphoid process
Floating or
vertebral ribs Costal cartilage
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.16 11
Module 5.16 Review
a. How are true ribs distinguished from false ribs?
b. What are the three parts of the sternum?
c. In addition to the ribs and sternum, what other
bones make up the thoracic cage?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Kyphosis (5.17)
•
Exaggerated thoracic curvature gives "round-
back" appearance
•
Caused by:
1. Osteoporosis with compression fractures on anterior
part of vertebral bodies
2. Chronic contraction in muscles inserting on vertebrae
3. Abnormal vertebral growth
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Kyphosis
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.17 11
Scoliosis (5.17)
• Abnormal lateral curvature of spine
• Most common distortion of vertebral column
• Caused by:
• Developmental problems
• Damage to vertebral bodies
• Muscular paralysis affecting one side of back
• Idiopathic (unknown cause)
• Treatment
• Bracing or surgery for severe cases
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Scoliosis
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.17 12
Lordosis (5.17)
• Anterior exaggeration of lumbar curvature –
"swayback"
• Causes of lordosis:
• Pregnancy
• Abdominal obesity
• Weakness in abdominal wall muscles
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lordosis
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.17 13
Module 5.17 Review
a. List three causes of kyphosis.
b. How might pregnancy contribute to the
development of lordosis?
c. Which condition is primarily associated with
lateral distortion of the spine?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Pectoral Girdle (5.18)
• Connects upper limbs to trunk
• Consists of:
• Two S-shaped clavicles
• Articulate with manubrium (sternal end) and:
• Acromion of scapula (acromial end)
• Flat, broader end
• Two broad, flat scapulae
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anterior view of the pectoral girdle
Clavicle
Jugular notch
Scapula
Humerus
Anterior view
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.18 11
Superior and inferior views of right clavicle
LATERAL
Superior view
of right clavicle
Acromial
end
LATERAL
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
MEDIAL
Sternal
end
Inferior view
of right clavicle
MEDIAL
Figure 5.18 12
Scapula (5.18)
• Anterior surface of body – triangle formed by:
• Superior border
• Medial (vertebral) border
• Lateral (axillary) border
• Corners of triangle are superior angle, inferior angle,
lateral angle (location of glenoid cavity)
• Subscapular fossa – depression in anterior surface
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Scapula (5.18)
• Posterior surface – convex with prominent ridges and
depressions
• Scapular spine
• Supraspinous fossa – depression superior to scapular
spine
• Infraspinous fossa – depression inferior to scapular spine
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anterior and posterior views of right scapula
Acromion
Coracoid
Superior
process
border
Scapular
spine
Acromion
Superior
angle
Subscapular
fossa
Glenoid
cavity
Lateral
border
Anterior view
of right scapula
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Supraspinous
fossa
Medial
border
Inferior
angle
Infraspinous
fossa
Posterior view
of right scapula
Figure 5.18 13- 2– 4
Scapula Structures – Lateral View (5.18)
• Glenoid cavity
• Articulates with humerus
• Acromion
• Large process that extends laterally
• Projects posterior and superior to glenoid cavity
• Continuous with scapular spine
• Coracoid process
• Projects anterior and superior to glenoid cavity
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lateral view of right scapula
Coracoid process
Glenoid cavity
Acromion
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lateral
view
of right
scapula
Figure 5.18 15
Module 5.18 Review
a. Name the bones of the pectoral girdle.
b. How would a broken clavicle affect the mobility
and stability of the scapula?
c. Which bone articulates with the scapula at the
glenoid cavity?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Humerus (5.19)
• Articulates with scapula at proximal end and ulna and radius at distal
end
• Surface features include:
• Head – articulates with glenoid cavity of scapula
• Greater tubercle (lateral, larger) and lesser (medial) tubercle
• Intertubercular groove – between tubercles; groove for tendon
• Anatomical neck and surgical neck (typical fracture site)
• Deltoid tuberosity – rough elevation where deltoid muscle
attaches
• Radial groove – path of radial nerve
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Humerus Distal End (5.19)
• Medial and lateral epicondyles
• Projections above condyles
• Capitulum
• Forms lateral surface of condyle
• Articulation point for radius
• Trochlea
• Spool-shaped medial portion of condyle
• Extends from olecranon fossa (posterior) to coronoid
fossa (anterior)
• Articulation point for ulna
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anterior and posterior views of right humerus
Anterior
Posterior
Head
view
view
Greater
Greater
tubercle
tubercle
Lesser tubercle
Intertubercular
groove
Anatomical neck
Shaft
Surgical
neck
Radial
groove
Deltoid tuberosity
Lateral
epicondyle
Capitulum
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Coronoid fossa
Olecranon
Medial
fossa
epicondyle
Trochlea
Trochlea
Figure 5.19 11
Forearm Bones – Ulna (5.19)
• In anatomical position, ulna is medial to radius
• Olecranon – point of elbow; projects into olecranon fossa
• Coronoid process – projects into coronoid fossa of
humerus
• Trochlear notch – articulates with trochlea of humerus
• Radial notch – articulates with head of radius at proximal
radio-ulnar joint
• Ulnar head –articulates with radius to form distal radioulnar joint
• Styloid process – attached to head
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Forearm Bones – Radius (5.19)
• Radius surface features
• Radial head – articulates with capitulum of humerus
• Neck – extends from radial head to radial tuberosity
• Radial tuberosity – attachment site for biceps brachii
muscle
• Styloid process – distal end; articulates with wrist
bones
• Interosseous membrane
• Fibrous sheet connecting shafts of ulna and radius
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Posterior and anterior views of right ulna and radius
Posterior
view
Olecranon
Anterior
view
Trochlear notch
Radial head
Neck of radius
Coronoid process
Proximal
Radial notch at
Radial tuberosity
radio-ulnar
proximal radio-ulnar
joint
joint
Ulna Radius
Radius Ulna
Interosseous
membrane
Ulnar notch
Ulnar head
Styloid process
of the radius
Styloid process of the ulna
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Distal radio-ulnar
joint
Ulnar head
Figure 5.19 12
Module 5.19 Review
a. Identify the bones of the arm and forearm.
b. Identify the two rounded projections on either
side of the elbow, and state to which bone they
belong.
c. Which bone of the forearm is positioned laterally
while in the anatomical position?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Carpals, Metacarpals, and Phalanges (5.20)
• Carpus (wrist) has eight carpal bones arranged in two
rows
• Proximal (scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform)
• Distal (trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate)
• Five metacarpal bones
• Articulate with distal carpal bones
• Identified by Roman numerals I–V starting on lateral side
• Phalanges
• Articulate with metacarpals
• 14 on each hand (3 for each finger; 2 for the thumb or
pollex)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bones of the wrist and hand
Proximal Carpal
Bones
Scaphoid
Lunate
Triquetrum
Pisiform
Ulna Radius
V
Proximal
phalanx
Middle
phalanx
Distal
phalanx
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
I
IV III
Distal Carpal
Bones
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitate
Hamate
II
Metacarpal
bones
Right wrist and hand,
posterior (dorsal) view
Figure 5.20 11
Module 5.20 Review
a. Define phalanges.
b. Name the carpal bones.
c. Bill accidentally fractures his first distal phalanx
with a hammer. Which finger is broken?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Pelvic Girdle (5.21)
•
Composed of two hip bones (coxal bones)
•
Hip bone formed by fusion of:
1. Ilium
2. Ischium
3. Pubis
•
Pubic symphysis – fibrocartilage pad connecting right
and left pubic bones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The pelvic girdle
Ilium
Pubis
Pubic symphysis
Ischium
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.21 11
Hip Bone Landmarks (5.21)
• Iliac spines – attachment sites for muscles and ligaments
• Gluteal lines – attachment points for large hip muscles
• Greater sciatic notch – passageway for sciatic nerve
• Iliac crest – ridge for muscle attachment
• Ischial spine – inferior to greater sciatic notch
• Ischial tuberosity – bears body's weight when seated
• Acetabulum – articulation point for femur
• Obturator foramen – closed by sheet of collagen fibers;
bounded by ischial ramus, inferior pubic ramus, superior
pubic ramus
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lateral view of the hip bone
Iliac crest
Anterior superior
iliac spine
Gluteal lines
Ilium
ANTERIOR
Posterior superior iliac spine
Posterior inferior iliac spine
Greater sciatic notch
Acetabulum
Ischial spine
Ischium
Pubis
Ischial ramus
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ischial tuberosity
Figure 5.21 12
Module 5.21 Review
a. Describe the acetabulum.
b. Which three bones fuse to make up the hip
bone?
c. When you are seated, which part of the hip bone
bears your body's weight?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Pelvis (5.22)
• Consists of two hip bones, sacrum, and coccyx
• Held together by extensive network of ligaments
• Sacro-iliac joint
• Articulation between sacrum and ilium
• Union between axial and appendicular skeleton
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Pelvic bones
Sacrum
Hip Bone
Ilium
Coccyx
Pubis
Ischium
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.22 11
Pelvic bone markings
Iliac crest
L5
Iliac
fossa
Ilium
Sacrum
Sacro-iliac
joint
Acetabulum
Pubic tubercle
Obturator foramen
Ischium
Anterior view
Pubic symphysis
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.22 11
False Pelvis and True Pelvis (5.22)
• Can divide pelvis into:
• False (greater) pelvis
• Encloses organs in inferior portion of abdominal cavity
• True (lesser) pelvis
• Encloses pelvic cavity
• Pelvic brim – bony margin of true pelvis
• Pelvic inlet – opening enclosed by pelvic brim
• Pelvic outlet – opening bounded by coccyx, ischial
tuberosities, ischial spines, and inferior border pubic symphysis
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Superior and inferior views of the pelvis
Superior view
Inferior view
Pelvic
outlet
False pelvis
Pelvic brim
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ischial
spine
Pelvic inlet
Pelvic outlet
Figure 5.22 12
Male and Female Pelvis Structure (5.22)
• Female pelvis versus male pelvis
• Smoother, lighter, and with less prominent markings
• Adapted for childbearing
• Enlarged pelvic outlet
• Broader pubic angle, greater than 100°
• Less curvature on sacrum and coccyx
• Wider, more circular pelvic inlet
• Broad, low pelvis
• Ilia project farther laterally but not as superiorly
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Male vs. female pelvic shape
Male
Ischial
spine
Female
90˚
or less
Ischial
spine
100˚
or more
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.22 13
Module 5.22 Review
a. Name the bones of the pelvis.
b. The pubic bones are joined anteriorly by what
structure?
c. How is the pelvis of females adapted for
childbearing?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Femur (5.23)
• Longest and heaviest bone in body
• Articulates with hip bone and tibia
• Major landmarks
• Femoral head – articulates with pelvis at acetabulum
• Neck – joins head to shaft at about 125°angle
• Greater trochanter (larger, lateral) and lesser trochanter
(smaller, medial)
• Intertrochanteric line – marks edge of articular capsule
• Gluteal tuberosity – attachment site for gluteus maximus
muscle
• Linea aspera – attachment site of hip muscles
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Distal End of the Femur (5.23)
• Medial and lateral condyles
• Articulate with tibia to form knee joint
• Patellar surface
• Anterior surface of femur; smooth surface for patella to
glide over
• Intercondylar fossa
• Posterior surface of femur between condyles
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anterior and posterior views of the left femur
Neck
Greater
trochanter
Pit in femoral head for
ligament attachment
to acetabulum
Greater
trochanter
Femoral head
Intertrochanter line
Lesser trochanter
Intertrochanteric
crest
Gluteal tuberosity
Linea aspera
Shaft
Lateral
supracondylar ridge
Patellar surface
Lateral epicondyle
Medial
epicondyle
Lateral condyle
Anterior view
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Medial
condyle
Intercondylar fossa
Lateral epicondyle
Lateral condyle
Posterior view
Figure 5.23 11- 2– 2
Tibia and Fibula (5.23)
• Tibia (shinbone)
• Larger, medial bone of leg
• Proximal end – medial and lateral tibial condyles articulate
with medial and lateral condyles of femur
• Intercondylar eminence – ridge separating condyles
• Fibula
• Small, slender bone
• Does not participate in knee joint; does not bear weight
• Attachment site for muscles moving foot and toes
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tibia and Fibula Landmarks (5.23)
• Tibia (shinbone)
• Tibial tuberosity – attachment point for patellar ligament
• Anterior crest – ridge along anterior tibial surface
• Medial malleolus – provides medial stability to ankle joint
• Fibula
• Head – articulates with tibia
• Lateral malleolus – provides lateral stability to ankle joint
• Interosseous membrane
• Helps stabilize bone positions; additional surface area for
muscle attachment
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anterior and posterior views of the right tibia and fibula
Superior
tibiofibular joint
Articular surface of
medial tibial condyle
Intercondylar eminence
Lateral tibial condyle
Head of fibula
Medial tibial condyle
Articular surface of
lateral tibial condyle
Tibial tuberosity
Lateral tibial condyle
Head of fibula
Interosseous
membrane
Anterior crest
Fibula
Tibia
Inferior articular surface
Medial malleolus
Lateral malleolus
Anterior view
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fibula
Inferior tibiofibular
joint
Lateral malleolus
(fibula)
Posterior view
Figure 5.23 13
Module 5.23 Review
a. Identify the bones of the lower limb.
b. Which structure articulates with the acetabulum?
c. The fibula neither participates in the knee joint
nor bears weight. Yet, when it is fractured,
walking becomes difficult. Why?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ankle and Foot (5.24)
• Ankle has seven tarsal bones
• Calcaneus (heel bone; connects to calcaneal or Achilles
tendon), talus (articulates with tibia), navicular, cuboid
• Three cuneiform bones (medial, intermediate, lateral)
• Five metatarsal bones
• Articulate with distal surface of cuboid and cuneiform bones
• Identified by Roman numerals I–V starting on medial side
• Phalanges
• Articulate with metatarsals
• 14 on each foot (2 for the great toe or hallux; 3 for each
other toe)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bones of the ankle and foot
The Ankle
Calcaneus
Talus
Trochlea of talus
Navicular
Cuboid
Cuneiform
bones
Metatarsals
Metatarsal bones
articulate with the
cuboid and cuneiform
bones.
V IV III II
I
Metatarsal bones I - V
Proximal phalanx
Distal phalanx
Phalanges
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Hallux
Superior view
Figure 5.24 11
Arches of the Foot (5.24)
• Longitudinal arch
• Formed due to ligaments and tendons connecting
calcaneus to distal part of metatarsal bones
• Allows for weight transfer depending on position of foot
• Differences in elasticity result in elevation of medial
plantar surface
• Transverse arch
• Due to degree of longitudinal curvature changing from medial
to lateral border
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lateral and medial views of the foot
Lateral
surface of
trochlea
of talus
Cuboid
bone
Navicular Cuneiform
bones
bone
Metatarsal
bones (I–V)
Phalanges
Lateral
view
Calcaneal tendon
attachment
III
II
I
IV
V
Phalanges
Metatarsal
Navicular Talus
Medial
bone
cuneiform
bones
bone
Medial
view
I
Calcaneus
Longitudinal arch Transverse arch
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.24 12
Congenital Talipes Equinovarus (5.24)
• Improper arch development in foot
• Common name "clubfoot"
• Abnormal muscle development distorts growing bones
• May involve one or both feet
• Ranges from mild to moderate to severe
• Longitudinal arch exaggerated
• Feet turned medially and inverted
• Affects 1 in 1000 births; more common in males
• Treated with casts and supports; possible surgery
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Module 5.24 Review
a. Identify the tarsal bones.
b. Which foot bone transmits the weight of the body
from the tibia toward the toes?
c. While jumping off the back steps at his house,
10-year old Joey lands on his right heel and
breaks his foot. Which foot bone is most likely
broken?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Joint Structure and Movement (Section 3)
• Movements in skeleton occur at articulations or
joints where two bones interconnect
• Amount of movement or range of motion (ROM)
determined by anatomical structure
• Functionally categorized as:
• Synarthrosis – no movement
• Amphiarthrosis – little movement
• Diarthrosis – free movement
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Synarthrosis (Section 3)
• Functionally no movement
• Bones close together or interlocked
• Suture – fibrous connection with interlocking surfaces
• Gomphosis – fibrous connection and insertion into
bony socket
• Synchondrosis – cartilaginous connection (cartilage
between two bones)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Amphiarthrosis and Diarthrosis (Section 3)
• Amphiarthrosis
• Permits more movement than synarthrosis
• Stronger than freely movable joint
• Bones connected by collagen fibers or cartilage
• Fibrous – syndesmosis – bones connected by ligament
• Cartilaginous – symphysis – bones connected by fibrocartilage
pad
• Diarthrosis – free movement
• Synovial – complex joints with joint capsules and synovial fluid
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5 Section 3 1
Synovial Joints (5.25)
• Allow free movement
• Components of synovial joints
• Articular cartilages – line ends of each bone; no
perichondrium; matrix has more water than other
cartilages
• Joint capsule or articular capsule – dense and fibrous;
may be reinforced with tendons and ligaments
• Synovial fluid – lubricates, cushions, prevents
abrasion, and supports chondrocytes
• Produced by synovial membrane lining joint cavity
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Components of synovial joints
Components of
Synovial Joints
Marrow cavity
Periosteum
Articular cartilage
Joint capsule
Synovial membrane
Synovial fluid
Spongy bone of
epiphysis
Compact bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.25 11
Functions of Synovial Fluid (5.25)
• Lubrication
• During compression of joint, synovial fluid squeezed into space
between opposing surfaces
• Thin layer of fluid reduces friction between moving surfaces
• Nutrient distribution
• Articular cartilage compresses and re-expands with movement
• Pumps synovial fluid into and out of cartilage matrix
• Circulating synovial fluid provides nutrients and waste disposal
• Shock absorption
• As joint is compressed, synovial fluid distributes forces evenly
across articular surfaces and outward to joint capsule
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Knee Joint and Dislocation (5.25)
• Accessory structures supporting the knee
• Bursa – small, fluid-filled pocket containing synovial fluid;
lined by synovial membrane; reduces friction and acts as
shock absorber
• Fat pads – localized masses of adipose tissue; lined by
synovial membrane; protect articular cartilages; fill in spaces
• Meniscus – pad of fibrocartilage; allows for variations in
articular surface shapes
• Accessory ligaments – support, strengthen, and reinforce
• Dislocation – articular surfaces forced out of position
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Accessory structures supporting the knee
Tendon of quadriceps muscles Accessory Structures
Supporting the Knee
Bursa
Patella
Synovial
membrane
Joint
capsule
Fat pads
Femur
Meniscus
Joint cavity
Articular
cartilage
Tibia
Accessory ligaments
Patellar ligament
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.25 13
Module 5.25 Review
a. Define dislocation.
b. Describe the components of a synovial joint, and
identify the function of each.
c. Why would improper circulation of synovial fluid
lead to the degeneration of articular cartilages in
the affected joint?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Types of Synovial Joints (5.26)
• Gliding – permits sliding motion in any direction on
relatively flat surface
• Hinge – permits movement in only one plane
• Pivot – permits rotation around axis
• Condylar – permits movement in two planes; prevents
rotation
• Saddle – permits more extensive motion in two planes;
prevents rotation
• Ball-and-socket – permits movements in multiple directions
plus rotation
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Models of Joint Motion
Types of Synovial Joints
Gliding joint
• Acromioclavicular and
sternoclavicular joints
• Intercarpal and intertarsal joints
• Vertebrocostal joints
• Sacro-iliac joints
Manubrium
Hinge joint
Humerus
Ulna
Pivot joint
Examples
Atlas
• Elbow joints
• Knee joints
• Ankle joints
• Interphalangeal joints
• Atlas/axis
• Proximal radio-ulnar joints
Axis
Condylar joint
Scaphoid bone
Radius
• Radiocarpal joints
• Metacarpophalangeal joints 2–5
• Metatarsophalangeal joints
Ulna
Saddle joint
• First carpometacarpal joints
III II
Metacarpal bone
of thumb
Trapezium
Ball-and-socket joint
Scapula
• Shoulder joints
• Hip joints
Humerus
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.26 1
Module 5.26 Review
a. Identify the types of synovial joints.
b. What type of synovial joint permits the widest
range of motion?
c. Indicate the type of synovial joint for each of the
following: shoulder, elbow, and thumb.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Intervertebral Discs (5.27)
• Pads of fibrocartilage separating adjacent vertebrae
• Composed of fibrous pad with gelatinous core
• Bulging disc
• Stresses distort intervertebral disc and force it partway into
vertebral canal
• Herniated disc
• Intervertebral disc projecting posteriorly into vertebral canal
impacting spinal nerves
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lateral view of bulging disc
T12
Normal
intervertebral
disc
L1
Bulging
disc
L2
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.27 11
Superior view of herniated disc
Compressed area
of spinal nerve
Spinal nerve
Gelatinous core
of herniated disc
Spinal cord
Intervertebral
disc
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.27 12
Osteoporosis (5.27)
• Normal aging – bones become thinner and weaker
• Begins between ages of 30–40
• Osteoblast activity declines; osteoclast activity stays same
level
• Women lose 8 percent skeletal mass each decade after
age 40
• Men lose 3 percent skeletal mass each decade after age
40
• Osteoporosis
• Condition when loss of bone mass compromises function
• Contributes to vertebral fractures in elderly
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Normal spongy bone and spongy bone with osteoporosis
Normal spongy bone
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
SEM x 25
Spongy bone with
osteoporosis
SEM x 21
Figure 5.27 13
Clinical scan of compression fracture in lumbar vertebra
Clinical scan of a compression
fracture in a lumbar vertebra
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.27 12
Module 5.27 Review
a. What is the function of an intervertebral disc?
b. Compare a bulging disc and a herniated disc.
c. What is osteoporosis?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Arthritis (5.28)
• Rheumatism
• General term indicating pain and stiffness in bones and/or muscles
• Arthritis
• All rheumatic diseases that affect synovial joints
• Involves damage to articular cartilages
• Osteoarthritis
• Affects age 60 or older
• From cumulative effects of wear and tear on joints or possible genetic
factors
• Affects 25 percent of women and 15 percent of men over age 60 in the
United States
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Normal and arthritic joints
Normal Joint
Arthritic Joint
Fibrous
remains of the
articular
cartilage
Articular
cartilage
LM x 180
Arthroscopic view of normal cartilage
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
LM x 180
Degenerating
articular
cartilage
Arthroscopic view of damaged cartilage
Figure 5.28 11- 2– 2
Arthroscope (5.28)
• Optical fibers within a narrow tube
• Used to explore joints without major surgery
• Arthroscopic surgery
• Inserting flexible instruments through second incision to
perform surgery
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Arthroscopic view of knee joint cavity
Femoral
condyle
Meniscus
Ligaments within
the joint cavity
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 5.28 13
Artificial Joints (5.28)
• Available for multiple synovial joints
• Can restore mobility and relieve pain
• Service life of about 10 years
• Joint replacement is a stressful procedure
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Artificial joints
Artificial hip
Artificial shoulder
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Artificial knee
Figure 5.28 14
Module 5.28 Review
a. Compare rheumatism to osteoarthritis.
b. Explain the use of an arthroscope.
c. What can a person do to slow the progression of
arthritis?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.