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Clinical terms
• Dwarfism
– Achondroplasia
• Abnormal projection from a bone due to bony overgrowth
– Bony spur
• Pain in bone
– Ostealgia
• Bone inflammation
– Osteitis
• Inflammation of bone and bone marrow caused by pus-forming
bacteria
– Osteomyalitis
• Bone cancer in a long bone of limb
– Osteosarcoma
• Fracture in diseased bone involving slight (coughing or quick turn)
– Pathological fracture
• Placing sustained tension on a body region to keep fractured bone
in alignment
– Traction
1
Epiphyseal Zones
• Name the 5 zones
Resting cartilage
Proliferation
Hypertrophy
Erosion (Calcification)
Diaphysis (ossification)
2
•
Identify
characteristics of
this zone
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
•
Resting Cartilage
Chondro’s resting in
Lacunae
Not mitotically
dividing
Not actively
contributing to bone
growth
Near epiphysis
Scattered chondro’s
What is the Role of
this zone?
1.
To anchor the rest of
the epiphyseal plate to
the epiphysis
3
Proliferation Zone
•
Identify
characteristics
1.
2.
3.
4.
Chondro’s
proliferating and
dividing
Supplying new
chondro’s to replace
those lost to
lengthening of bone
Proliferating cells
stick up into narrow
cells
Cells resemble stack
of coins
4
Hypertrophy (Maturing) Zone
•
Identify
characteristics
1.
2.
3.
4.
Cellular breakdown
Chondro’s begin to
break down and
produce alkaline
phosphatase
Enzyme facilitates
calcification of extra
cellular matrix
Large chondro’s
arranged in columns
5
Erosion Zone
(calcification)
•
Identify
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Calcium salts deposited
in cartilage matrix by
osteoids
Osteogenesis,
osteoblasts laying down
the matrix
Only a few cells thick
Dead cells because the
matrix around them
became calcified
Calcified matrix
destroyed by osteoclasts
(acids and enzymes),
then invaded by
osteoblasts and
capillaries from
diaphysis
Diaphyseal border of
the plate firmly
cemented to the bone of
the diaphysis
6
Diaphysis Zone (ossification)
•
Identify
1.
Long
spiracles
(tuberculae)
that form
spongy bone
produced
7
Articulations - Appendicular
• Clavicle:
– Medially with sternum
manubrium
– Laterally acromium of
scapula
• Scapula:
– Lateral with head of
humerus at glenoid cavity
– Distally, medial ulnar notch
of radius to ulna and carpals
• Ulna: (little finger side)
– Proximal – trochlea of
humerus
– Distal – medial with radius at
radioulnar joint
• Humerus
– Proximal with scapula
– Distal with radius and ulna
• Radius: (lateral thumb side)
– Proximal with capitulum of
humerus
– Medial with radial notch of
ulna
8
Osteological Terms - Processes
• A rounded articulating
process
– Condyle
• Any bony projection
– Process
• A projection located
above a condyle
– Epicondyle
• A large rounded or
irregular process
– Tuberosity
• A small rounded process
– Tubercle
• A very large, often blunt
process
– trochanter
• A sharp, slender process
– Spine
• A hook-shaped process
– Hamulus
• A very slight ridge of
bone
– Line
• A prominent ridge of
bone
– Crest
• A smooth flattened
articulating surface
– Facet
9
Osteological terms - Fosae
• A hole in a bone through which nerves and blood pass
– Foramen
• A tunnel-like passage through a bone
– Meatus or canal
• A cavity within a bone
– Sinus
• A furrow on a bone’s surface
– Sulcus or Groove
• A slit-like opening in a bone
– Fissure
• A shallow depression
– Fovea
10
Identify parts of the bone
• Tubular shaft of the long
bone
– Diaphysis
• Part of long bone where
growth occurs
– Epiphysis
• Irregularly arranged lamellae
and osteocytes interconnected
by canaliculi
– Spongy bone (Cancellous,
Trabeculae bone)
• Marrow cavity in the shaft of
long bone
– Medullary cavity
• Hematopoietic tissue found
within trabecular cavities of
spongy bone
– Red marrow
• Fat that fills cavities of
bones
– Yellow marrow
• Membrane covering
internal bone surfaces
– Endosteum
• Highly vascularized
membrane covering the
exterior of the diaphysis
– Periosteum
• Disc of hyaline cartilage
that grows during
childhood to lengthen
the bone
– Epiphyseal plate
11
Name functions of Skeleton
System
•
•
Support
• Bones support the body and organs
Protection
–
•
Protect vital organs: skull, sternum, vertebrae, ribs
Movement
–
•
Skeletal muscle contraction causes movement
Mineral storage
–
•
Calcium and other minerals stored in bone can be released
into the bloodstream when needed (hormonal control)
Formation of blood cells
–
Hematopoiesis occurs in blood marrow resulting in the
production of red and white blood cells and platelets
12
What are the 2 types of Osseous
Tissue
• Compact bone
– Smooth, compact, with little air space
– Haversian systems
• Spongy bone (cancellous, trabecular)
– Small pieces of bone surrounded by open spaces
filled with red or yellow marrow
13
Name the 4 types of bone
• Long bone
– Shaft with a wide portion at both ends
– Primarily compact bone with spongy at the widened areas
– Humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula, phalanges
• Short bones
– Cube shaped, mostly cancellous bone
– Wrist, ankle
– Sesamoid – short bones embedded within tendon (patella)
• Flat bone
– Thin and flat
– 2 layers of compact with spongy between
– Sternum, ribs, skull
• Irregular bone
– Spongy with odd shape
– Vertebrae and hip
14
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Composed of?
– Osteons or Haversion systems
Interspersed with?
– Blood, lymphatic vessels and nerves
Concentric rings of compact bone called ____________ surround hollow
passageways called ____________________
– Lamella, Haversion canals
What connects Haversion canals?
– Volkman’s canals
Canals are lined with what tissue?
– Endosteum
Where do osteocytes reside?
– Lacunae
What connects the lacunae?
– Canaliculi
What are the canaliculi’s function?
– Permit nutrients and oxygen to pass between osteocytes
– Remove wastes
What are interstitial lamellae?
– Layers of bone that fill gaps between osteons
What are circumferential lamellae?
– Large rings of bone extending around the entire shaft of the bone
Compact bone
15
Compact bone structure
16
Chemical Composition of bone
• What are the organic components of bone?
– Osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts
– osteoid
• What is the Osteoid comprised of?
– Collagen fibers, proteoglycans, and glycoproteins
• What is its function?
– Flexibility and tensile strength on bone
• What are the inorganic components?
– Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts) which are mostly calcium phosphates
(tiny crystals from the blood stream deposited among collagen fibers)
• What are they responsible for?
– Hardness of the bone
• What are bone markings?
– Bulges, depressions, rough spots, holes on the exterior surface of the
bone
– Most are muscle or ligament attachment sights
17
Name the 2 types of bone
formation
• Intramembranous ossification
• Endochondrial Ossification
18
•
What is it?
–
•
Intramembranous Ossification?
The process of bone developing from a fibrous tissue
What bones are formed this way?
–
•
Flat bones such as the skull and clavicles
Explain the process:
–
Fibrous connective tissue in developing fetus become?
–
–
Osteoid is?
–
–
plates of bone.
Eventually these plates of woven bone are replaced by?
–
–
woven bone.
Trabeculae thickens until they become?
–
–
woven bone.
The periosteum forms around the?
–
–
small networks of collagen fibers called trabeculae.
This early bone formation is called?
–
–
then mineralized and osteoblasts become osteocytes
Osteoid accumulates in?
–
–
scattered with osteoblasts that begin secreting organic matrix.
compact bone.
Spongy bone remains in the center of the bone and the vascular
tissue within it?
–
differentiates into red marrow (formation of diploe)
19
Intramembranous Ossification 1
20
Intramembranous 2
21
Intramembranous 3
22
Intramembranous 4
23
•
What is it?
–
•
Endochondrial Ossification?
The process of bone formation where hyaline cartilage is used as the
model for constructing bone. Most bones are formed this way
Explain the process:
–
The perichondrium surrounding the hyaline cartilage bone model
becomes infiltrated with?
–
–
Osteoblasts in the periosteum secrete?
–
–
medullary cavity in the center of the shaft
Secondary ossification centers form shortly before or after?
–
–
deposit osteoid, forming trabeculae of bone (early spongy bone)
Osteoclasts break down new spongy bone and open a?
–
–
the internal cavity of the forming bone.
Osteoblasts from the periosteal bud begin to?
–
–
deteriorate
A periosteal bud containing arteries, veins, nerves and lymph vessels
invades?
–
–
osteoid externally onto the shaft of the hyaline bone
The matrix deep within the shaft of the cartilage begins to?
–
–
blood vessels, converting it into periosteum.
birth in the epiphyses of the bone.
Spongy bone is eventually formed with hyaline cartilage remaining
only at the?
–
epiphyseal plate and the articular cartilages
24
Endochondral Ossification
Secondary
ossification
center
Hyaline
cartilage
Deteriorating
cartilage matrix
Spongy
bone
formation
Primary
ossification
center
Bone
collar
Formation of
bone collar
around
hyaline
cartilage
model.
Epiphyseal
blood vessel
Articular
cartilage
Spongy bone
Medullary
cavity
Epiphyseal
plate
cartilage
Blood
vessel of
periosteal
bud
Cavitation
of the
hyaline
cartilage
within the
cartilage
model.
Invasion of
internal cavities
by the periosteal
bud and spongy
bone formation.
Formation of the
medullary cavity as
ossification continues;
appearance of secondary
ossification centers in the
epiphyses in preparation
for stage 5.
Ossification of the
epiphyses; when
completed, hyaline
cartilage remains only in
the epiphyseal plates and
articular cartilages
25
Bone growth in long bones
• How do long bones grow in children?
– Entirely by interstitial growth of the epiphyseal
plates
• How do bones grow in thickness?
– By appositional growth
• The widening of bones
26
Epiphyseal bone growth
•
•
•
The top layer (epi side) of hyaline cartilage plate contains actively
dividing chondrocytes that are pushed towards the ________________?
•
Diaphysis
What does this do?
•
Causes the entire bone to lengthen
What happens to the chondrocytes as they get closer to the shaft?
•
•
They enlarge and eventually die
What occurs at the junction of the epiphysis and the diaphysis?
•
•
Osteoblasts begin to secrete bone matrix and form small spicules of bone
What promotes the adolescent growth spurt and eventually leads to the
closure of epiphyseal plate?
•
•
Sex hormones
What happens as adolescence ends?
•
•
The epiphyseal plate becomes smaller and is entirely replaced by bone
tissue
What is the result of this occurring?
•
Bone growth ends
27
Long bone growth
28
Structure of long bone
29
What is appositional growth
• The process used to?
– Widen bones
• _____________ beneath the _____________ form new
______________ systems on the outer surface of the bone
– Osteoblasts, periosteum, Haversian
• ________________ on the ________________ break down
bone to enlarge the ______________ cavity.
– Osteoclasts, endosteum, medullary
30
Appositional growth
Periosteal ridge
Artery
Periosteum
1 Osteoblasts beneath the
periosteum secrete bone
matrix, forming ridges
that follow the course of
periosteal blood vessels.
Central canal of osteon
Penetrating canal
2 As the bony ridges
enlarge and meet, the
groove containing the
blood vessel becomes
a tunnel.
3 The periosteum lining
the tunnel is
transformed into an
endosteum and the
osteoblasts just deep to
the tunnel endosteum
secrete bone matrix,
narrowing the canal.
4 As the osteoblasts beneath
the endosteum form new
lamellae, a new osteon is
created. Meanwhile new
circumferential lamellae
are elaborated beneath the
periosteum and the process
is repeated, continuing to
enlarge bone diameter.
31
Bone Remodeling
•
What is bone remodeling?
– Process where bone is resorbed and deposited at periosteal or endosteal
surfaces
•
What should the rate of bone resorption be in healthy adults?
– The same rate as deposition so the total mass remains constant
•
What is bone deposit?
– Osteoblasts laying down new osteoid which is later mineralized into bone
•
How is bone resorption carried out?
–
•
by osteoclasts secreting enzymes onto the bone that digest organic matrix. The
osteoclasts also secrete acids that help to make the calcium salts more soluble
What is PTH?
– Parathyroid hormone
– Hormone produced by the parathyroid gland in response to low blood calcium
levels.
– It stimulates bone resorption so that calcium is released and put back into the
blood
•
What is Calcitonin?
– A protein produced by specialized “C” cells in the thyroid and secreted when
blood calcium levels rise
– Inhibits bone resorption and enhances calcium deposit in the bone matrix
32
Bone remodeling
• How much of our bone mass is recycled every week?
– 5 to 7%
• How often is spongy bone replaced? Compact bone
– Every 3 to 4 years
– Every 10 years
• What are remodeling units?
– Packets of adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts that coordinate bone
remodeling
• What is bone deposit?
– Added bone for injured or strength of bone
• What is an osteoid seam?
– The marking of new matrix deposits by osteocytes (band of gauzy
looking bone matrix)
• What helps trigger calcification?
– Calcium and phosphate ions
33
Bone remodeling (cont)
• What happens when calcium and phosphate mix reach a certain
level?
– Tiny crystals of hydroxyapatite form and catalyze further
crystallization of calcium salts in the area
• What are other factors involved?
– Matrix proteins binding and concentrating calcium
– Alkaline phosphatase mineralizing
• When the conditions are met, what happens?
– Calcium salts are deposited all at once and with great precision
throughout the mature matrix
34
Bone resorption
• What accomplishes this?
– Osteoclasts
• As they move along the bone surface what do they do?
– Dig grooves called resorption bays and break down bony matrix
• How does the area of bone destruction seal off?
– By osteoclasts that touch the bone forming a ruffled membrane that
clings to the bone, sealing it off
• What does the ruffled border secrete and what does this do?
– Lysosomal enzymes – digest organic matrix
– Hydrocholoric acid – converts calcium salts into soluble forms in
order to make them pass easily into solution
• What happens to these products?
– They are endocytosed and then released into the blood
• What cells are important in this process?
– T cells
35
Remodeling control
• What regulates remodeling?
– 2 control loops:
• Negative feedback that maintains Ca2 Homeostasis in the blood
• Gravitational forces acting on skeleton
• Why is calcium so important for the body?
–
–
–
–
–
Nerve impulses
Muscle contractions
Blood coagulation
Gland and nerve cell secretions
Cell division
• Where is 99% of calcium in the body?
– Bone minerals
• What range does the hormonal loop keep calcium?
– 9-11 mg per 100 ml of blood
• Where is calcium absorbed from?
– Intestine
36
Hormonal Mechanism
• What does the hormonal mechanism involve?
– PTH – parathyroid hormone – parathyroid gland
– Calcitonin – produced by parafollicular cells (C-cells) of thyroid
gland
• When is PTH released?
– When calcium levels decline
• What does it do?
– Stimulates osteoclasts to resorb bone, release calcium into blood
• What happens?
– Osteoclasts break down old and new matrix
• What escaped digestion and why?
– Osteoid
– Because it lacks calcium salts
• When does the stimulus for PTH end?
– When blood concentrations of calcium rise
37
Hormonal mechanisms (cont)
• What is secreted when calcium levels rise?
– Calcitonin
• What is its function?
– Inhibit resorption, encourage deposition
– Reduce blood calcium
• What happens when blood calcium levels fall?
– Calcitonin release wanes
• Are these responses to preserve bone strength?
– No. They are for maintaining blood calcium homeostasis
• What happens if levels are low for a long time?
– Bones demineralize and develop large, punched out holes
38
Bone Remodeling
39
Mechanical Stress
• What is Wolff’s law?
– Bones grow and remodel in response to the demands placed on
it?
• What are other observations of Wolff’s law?
– Long bones thickest midway along diaphysis (where stress is
greatest)
– Curved bones thickest where most likely to buckle
– Trabeculae form trusses along lines of compression
– Large bony projections occur where active heavy muscles
attach
• How do forces communicate with remodeling cells?
– Electrical signaling
• What are hormonal loops function in remodeling?
– Whether and when remodeling occur
• What are mechanical stresses functions?
– Where remodeling will occur
40
Fracture Classification
• Location of bone after fracture:
– Non-displaced – normal end positions
– Displaced – out of normal alignment
• Completeness of break:
– Complete – all the way through
– Incomplete – not all the way
• Orientation:
– Linear – parallel of long axis
– Transverse – perpendicular to axis
• Skin penetration:
– Open – penetrates the skin
– Closed – skin not penetrated
41
Bone Repair
1.
Hematoma formation:
1.
2.
2.
Fibrocartilaginous callus formation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
3.
Capillaries grow into hematoma
Phagocytes begin cleaning debris
Fibros and osteos begin reconstructing bone
Fibros repair collagen, chondros repair cartilage
Osteos form spongy bone secrete bulging cartilage matrix that later
calcifies
Fibrocartilaginous callus splints broken bone
Bony Callus formed:
1.
4.
Clotted blood forms at site
Bone cells die, tissue becomes inflamed
Trabeculae appear in callus, convert it to bony callus
Bone remodeling:
1.
Bony callus remodeled
42
Common Fractures
• Comminuted:
– Fragments into 3 or more pieces (aged, brittle
boned)
• Compression:
– Crushed
• Spiral:
– Ragged break, excessive twisting (sports)
• Epiphyseal:
– Epiphysis separated from diaphysis
• Depressed:
– Broken inward
• Greenstick:
– Incomplete break on one side, other side bends
43
Clinical advances in bone repair
• What does electrical stimulation do to a fracture?
– Dramatically increases healing time
• What is the piezo electric effect?
– Minute electrical currents are produced when minerals are stressed
• What happens in regions of negative electrical charge? Positive?
– Negative – bone deposited
– Positive – bone resorbed
• What effect does ultrasound treatment produce on fractures?
– Reduce healing times 35 to 45%
• What is VEGF? Function?
– Vascular endothelial growth factor
– Stimulates blood vessel growth
44
Bone Imbalances - Osteoporosis
•
•
•
•
•
•
What is osteoporosis?
– Group of diseases in which bone resorption occurs more than bone
deposit
What are the results of the disease?
– Reduced bone mass
Which bones are most susceptible?
– Vertebrae, neck of the femur
Who is most likely to have this disease?
– Postmenopausal women
Why?
– Estrogen loss
What are some contributors?
–
–
–
–
–
Insufficient exercise
Poor calcium intake
Vitamin D or Calcitonin metabolism problems
Smoking, drinking
Immobility
45
Bone Imbalances - Osteomalacia
• What is it?
– Inadequate bone mineralization
– Osteoid deposited but calcium salts are not
• Weight bearing bones?
– Fracture, bend, deform
• What are Rickets?
– Bowing of the legs and deformed pelvis
• What causes this?
– Insufficient calcium or vitamin D intake
46
Bone Imbalances – Paget’s Disease
• What is Paget’s Disease?
– Excessive, abnormal bone formation and resorption
• What causes this?
– High ratio of woven bone to compact bone and bone mineralization
reduction
• What is the result?
– Soft, weak bones
47
Skeleton
• What % of body mass is the skeleton?
– 20%
• How many bones?
– 206
• What are ligaments?
– Fibrous tissue that connect bones at joints
48
What are the 2 groups of skeleton?
• Axial:
• How many bones?
– 80
• Which bones make up axial?
– Skull, vertebrae, rib cage
• Appendicular:
• How many bones?
– 126
• Which make up appendicular?
– Upper, lower limbs, shoulders, hips
49
Skull
• How many bones?
– 22 including cranial and facial
• What kind, how do they articulate?
– Flat, sutures
• What is the top, lateral and posterior of skull called?
– The Calvaria
• What are the 3 base regions?
– Anterior, middle, posterior cranial fossae
• What are the 4 pair of cavities called and what are they?
– Paranasal sinuses - Sphenoid, Ethmoid, Maxillary, Frontal
– Lighten the skull and give resonance to the voice
• What is each cavity lined with?
– Mucous membranes that form the mucus that drains into the nasal
cavity
• What are Orbits?
– Eye cavities
– Surrounded by fatty tissue
– Formed by 7 bones
50
Skull (cont)
• What is the Nasal cavity composed of?
– Bone and hyaline cartilage
• What is the roof, superior/lateral walls and superior nasal septum
formed by?
– Ethmoid bone
• What is the floor formed by?
– Anteriorly – maxilla
– Posteriorly – palatine bones
• What is the cavity divided by?
– Nasal septum
• What is the Nasal septum formed by?
– Perpendicular plate of ethmoid, vomer, and septal cartilage
• Where is the nasal concha and what does it do?
– Lateral walls
– Increase turbulence of air to help trap particles in mucus
51
Skull (cont)
• What are the conchae and septum lined with and what
does it do?
– Mucosa
– Helps lighten air and secrete mucus
• What is the Cribriform plate and what does it do?
– Part of ethmoid bone in roof of nasal cavity
– Has small openings for olefactor (smell) nerves to pass through on
their way to the brain
52
Vertebral column
• How many vertebrae?
– 33 , some fused in adults
• What separates them?
– Fibrocartilage called intervertebral disc
– Inner portion of disc contain jelly-like sub for elasticity
• What is a herniated disc?
– Jelly-like sub is pushed out by pressure putting pressure on spinal
nerve
• What are the curvatures of the vertebrae?
– Thoracic – bow out
– Lumbar – curve in
53
Appendicular Skeleton
• What makes up the appendicular skeleton?
– Pectoral and pelvic girdle
– Upper and lower limbs
• What is the only attachment of arms to body?
– Scapula
• Does the fibula articulate with the femur?
– No. Only with the Tibia
• What do both the fibula and tibia articulate with distally?
– Talus bone to form the ankle
54
Axial Skeleton
Skull, Vertebral Column, Bony Thorax
55
• What is body’s most complex structure?
– Skull
• What bones form it? How many?
– Cranial and facial bones
– 22
• What are the functions of the facial bones?
–
–
–
–
–
Form framework for face
Contain cavities for sense organs for sight, taste, smell
Air and food passageways
Secure teeth
Anchor expression muscles
• What kind of bones are found in the skull?
– Flat (except mandible)
• What unites these bones?
– Interlocking sutures
• What are the major sutures?
–
–
–
–
Coronal
Sagittal
Squamous
Lambdoid
Skull
56
• What is the cranial vault?
– The Calvaria
– The superior, lateral and posterior aspects of the head including the
forehead
• What is the cranial base or floor?
– Inferior aspects of skull
• What are the 3 internal fossae of the base of the skull?
– Anterior, middle and posterior cranial fossae
• What sits in these fossae?
– The brain
• What are the smaller cavities of the skull?
– Middle, inner ear
– Nasal
– Orbits
• How many openings are in the skull?
Skull (cont)
– 85
• What are their functions?
– Spinal cord passage
– Blood vessels
– nerves
57
Cranium
• How many bones?
– 8
• Name them:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Parietal (pair)
Frontal
Occipital
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Temporal (pair)
• What do these bones form?
– The helmet around brain
58
Frontal bone
• What is medical term for forehead?
– Frontal squama
• What are the supraorbital margins?
– Thick, margin under eyebrows
• What does the anterior cranial fossa support?
– Lobes of the brain
• What allows the supraorbital artery and nerve to pass to the
forehead?
– Supraorbital foramen
• What is the smooth portion between the eyes called?
– Glabella
• What are the nasal sutures called?
– Frontonasal sutures
• What is riddled around the glabella?
– Frontal sinuses
59
Parietal bones
• Where are these bones?
– Superior and lateral skull
• They form the bulk of the cranial ________?
– Vault
• What occurs where the parietal bones articulate with other cranial
bones?
– The four largest sutures
60
Main Sutures
• Where parietal meets frontal anteriorly?
– Coronal
• Where parietal meets superiorly at cranial
midline?
– Sagittal
• Where parietal meets occipital?
– Lambdoid
• Where parietal meets temporal?
– squamous
61
Mandible
• What is it?
– Lower jaw
• What does it consist of?
– Body, ramus, mandibular notch, condyles, coronoid process
• What does the mandibular body do?
– Anchors the lower teeth
• What is the alveolar margin for?
– Contains the sockets where teeth are embedded
• What does the mandibular symphysis indicate?
– Where the 2 mandible bones fused during infancy
• What are the nerve entrances called?
– Mandibular foramina
62
Mandible functions
• Coronoid
– Insertion for temporalis muscle
• Condyles
– Articulate with temporal bones for movement of jaw
• Symphysis
– Fusion point of mandible
• Alveoli
– Teeth sockets
• Foramina
– Admit inferior alveolar nerve
• Mental foramen
– Blood vessel and nerves to chin and lower lip
63
Maxillary bones
• What area of face?
– Upper jaw, central portion
• What articulates with it?
– All facial bones except mandible
• Why is it keystone of face?
– All bones articulate with it. (- mandible)
• What part of maxilla carry upper teeth?
– Alveolar margin
• What is the function of incisive fossa?
– Passage for blood vessels, nerves
• What articulates with the maxilla laterally?
– Zygomatic process
• What forms the bony roof of the mouth?
– Palatine processes
• What is at the junction of maxilla and greater wing of the
sphenoid?
– Inferior orbital fissure
64
Maxilla functions
• Alveoli
– Tooth socket
• Zygomatic processes
– Form zygo arch
• Palatine
– Form anterior hard palate
• Frontal
– Form lateral part of nose bridge
• Incisive fossa
– Admit blood vessels, nerves through hard palate
• Inferior orbital fissure
– Admit maxillary branch of cranial nerve V, zygo nerve, blood vessels
• Infraorbital foramen
– Nerve to skin of face
65
Articulation of other face bones
• Zygomatic:
• Articulation:
– Zygomatic processes of temporal posteriorly
– Zygomatic processes of frontal superiorly
– Zygomatic processes of maxilla anteriorly
• Nasal bones:
• Articulation:
–
–
–
–
Frontal bone superiorly
Maxilla laterally
Perpendicular plate posteriorly
Inferiorly to cartilage that form external nose
• Lacrimal bones:
• Articulation:
– Frontal superiorly
– Ethmoid posteriorly
– Maxilla anteriorly
66
Articulation of other face bones
• Palatine bones
• Articulation:
• What are the important plates?
– Horizontal, perpendicular
• What are the 3 processes?
– Pyramidal
– Sphenoidal
– Orbital
67
Orbits
Supraorbital foramen
Superior
Orbital
fissure Optic canal
Lesser wing of sphenoid
Medial wall:
Orbital plate of frontal
Sphenoid body
Orbital plate of ethmoid
Zygo process of frontal
Frontal process of maxilla
Greater wing of sphenoid
Lacrimal
Nasal bone
Orbital surface of zygo
Floor of orbit:
Infraorbital fissure
Infraorbital groove
Zygomatic bone
Orbital process of palantine
Infraorbital foramen
Orbital surface of maxillary
Zygomatic bone
68
Nasal Cavity
• What is it constructed of?
– Bone and hyaline cartilage
• What is the roof formed by?
– Cribriform plate of ethmoid
• What shapes the lateral walls?
– Superior, middle conchae of ethmoid, perpendicular of palatine
• What are the depressions under the conchae?
– Superior, middle, inferior meatus
• What is the floor formed by?
– Palatine processes of maxillae and palatine bones
• What divides the nasal cavity?
– Septum
• What is the bony part of septum?
– Vomer
• What cartilage completes the septum anteriorly?
– Septal cartilage
69
Nasal Cavity
Frontal sinus
Superior, middle, and
Inferior meatus
Superior nasal concha
Middle nasal concha
Inferior nasal concha
Nasal bone
Anterior nasal spine
Maxillary bone
(Palatine process)
Sphenoid sinus
Pterygoid process
Palatine bone Palatine bone
Perpendicular horizontal
70
Paranasal sinuses
71
Hyoid bone
• Where?
– Just inferior to mandible
in the neck
• What is unique about this
bone?
– Does not articulate
directly with any other
bone
• What is anchored by?
– Stylohyoid ligaments
• To What?
– Styloid processes of
temporal
• What is its function?
– Move tongue
– Attach muscles that
raise/lower larynx for
speech, swallowing
72
Anterior Skull
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Frontal Bone
Supra-Orbital Foramen
Orbit (Orbital Cavity)
Superior Orbital Fissure
Inferior Orbital Fissure
Zygomatic Bone
Infra-Orbital Foramen
Maxilla
Mandible
Mental Foramen
Incisive Fossa
Symphysis
Vomer
Inferior Nasal Concha
Middle Nasal Concha
Perpendicular Plate of
Ethmoid
Nasal Bone
Lacrimal Bone
73
Skull - Lateral
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Parietal Bone
Coronal Suture
Frontal Bone
Nasal Bone
Vomer
Lacrimal Bone
Orbital Part of Ethmoid
Zygomatic Bone
Maxilla
Body of Mandible
Ramus of Mandible
Coronoid Process
Mandibular Condyle
Mental Foramen
Styloid Process
External Acoustic Meatus
Mastoid Process
Zygomatic Process
Temporal Bone
Greater Wing of Sphenoid
Inferior Temporal Line
Superior Temporal Line
Squamosal Suture
Lambdoidal Suture
Occipital Bone
74
Skull Posterior
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Parietal Bone
Sagittal Suture
Lambdoid Suture
Occipital Bone
External Occipital
Protruberance
Superior Nuchal Line
Inferior Nuchal Line
75
Occipital bone
• Where is this bone?
– Posterior wall and base of skull
• What sutures connect it to the temporal and parietal bones?
– Lambdoid
– Occipitomastoid
• What does the internal walls of occipital form?
– Posterior cranial fossa
• What foramen is at the base of occipital?
– Foramen magnum
• What are the occipital condyles?
– Rocker like condyles that articulate with c1 and allow nodding of
head
• What does the external occipital crest secure?
– Ligamente nuchae
• What do nuchal lines and bony regions do?
– Anchor many back muscles
76
Occipital Parts functions
• Foramen magnum
– Spinal cord passage from brain stem to vertebral canal
• Hypoglossal canal
– Passage of hypoglossal nerve (cranial nerve XII)
• Occipital condyles
– Atlas articulation
• External protuberence/nuchal lines
– Muscle attachments
• External Crest
– Ligamente nuchae
77
Skull - superior
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Occipital Bone
Lambdoidal
Suture
Parietal Bone
Sagittal Suture
Coronal Suture
Frontal Bone
78
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
Frontal Sinus
Foramen Cecum
Crista Galli
Cribriform Plate
Anterior Cranial Fossa
Lesser Wing of Sphenoid
Chiasmatic Groove
Hypophyseal Fossa
Dorsum Sella
Optic Canal
Anterior Clinoid Process
Foramen Rotundum
Foramen Ovale
Foramen Spinosum
Squamous Part of Temporal
Petrous Part of Temporal
Groove for Transverse Sinus
Posterior Cranial Fossa
Foramen Magnum
Hypoglossal Canal
Jugular Foramen
Internal Acoustic Meatus
Posterior Clinoid Process
Foramen Lacerum
Superior Orbital Fissure
Superior Skull
79
Mandible
1.
Mandibular
Condyle
2. Mandibular Notch
3. Coronoid Process
4. Ramus
5. Angle
6. Oblique Line
7. Body
8. Alveolar Process
9. Mental Foramen
10. Mylohyoid Line
11. Mandibular
Foramen
80
Anterior skull
Parietal bone
Frontal
Glabella
Frontal squama
Of frontal bone
Nasal bone
Frontonasal suture
Supraorbital foramen
Supraorbital margin
Superior Orbital fissure
Sphenoid
Temporal
Optic Canal
Ethmoid
Inferior orbital fissure
Lacrimal
Zygomatic
Middle nasal concha
Perpendicular plate
Inferior nasal concha
Infraorbital foramen
Maxilla
Vomer
Mandible
Mental
Foramen
Mandibular
Symphysis
81
Lateral Skull
Coronal suture
Frontal bone
Parietal bone
Sphenoid bone
Temporal bone
Ethmoid bone
Lacrimal bone
Lacrimal fossa
Lambdoid suture
Squamous suture
Occipital bone
Zygomatic process
Nasal bone
Zygomatic bone
Occipitomastoid suture
External auditory meatus
Maxilla
Mastoid process
Styloid process
Mandibular condyle
Mandibular notch
Mandibular ramus
Alveolar margins
Mandible
Mental foramen
Coronoid Process
Mandibular angle
82
Posterior Skull
Sagittal suture
Parietal
bone
Wormian bone
Lambdoid
suture
Occipital bone
Superior nuchal
line
External Occipital
protuberance
Mastoid process
Occipitomastoid
suture
External Occipital Occipital
condyle
crest
Inferior
Nuchal line
83
Midsagittal Internal left side of skull
Coronal suture
Parietal bone
Squamous suture
Frontal bone
Sphenoid bone
Temporal bone
Frontal sinus
Crista galli
Nasal bone
Sphenoid sinus
Ethmoid bone
Lambdoid suture
Occipital bone
Occipitomastoid suture
Vomer bone
Incisive fossa
Maxilla
External occipital Protuberence
Internal acoustic meatus
Sella Turcica of
sphenoid
Alveolar margins
Pterygoid
Process of
Sphenoid
Mandible
Palatine bone
Mandibular foramen
Palatine process
84
Inferior skull
Incisive fossa
Medial palantine suture
Infraorbital foramen
Maxilla
Maxilla
Palatine bone
Zygomatic bone
Temporal bone
Sphenoid bone
Foramen ovale
Foramen lacerum
Vomer
Carotid canal
External acoustic meatu
Stylomastoid foramen
Mandibular fossa
Styloid process
Mastoid process
Temporal bone
Jugular foramen
Occipital condyle
Inferior nuchal line
Pharyngeal Tubercle of
basoccipital
Parietal bone
External Occipital
Crest
Superior nuchal line
Foramen magnum
External Occipital
protuberence
85
Temporal bone
Squamous region
External Acoustic
meatus
Zygomatic process
Mandibular fossa
Mastoid region
Mastoid process
Styloid process
Tympanic region
86
• How many? Where are they on skull?
– 2 (One on each side - inferior to parietal bones)
• What are the temporal’s four major regions?
– Squamous,Tympanic, Mastoid, Petrous
Temporal
bones
• Functions of parts?
• Zygomatic process –
– helps form prominence of cheek
• External acoustic meatus –
– for hearing
• Styloid process –
– attach hyoid and neck muscles
• Mastoid process –
– attach neck and tongue muscles
• Carotid canal –
– passage of internal carotid artery
• Jugular foramen –
– passage of internal jugular vein and cranial nerves IX, X, XI
87
Superior sphenoid
Optic canal
Chiasmatic groove
Lesser wing
Greater wing
Anterior clinoid
process
Foramen rotundum
Foramen ovale
Greater wing
Hypophyseal
Fossa of sella
turcica
Foramen spinosum
Dorsum Sellae
Body of sphenoid
Posterior clinoid
process
88
Posterior sphenoid
Body of sphenoid
Greater wing
Posterior clinoid process
Superior orbital
fissure
Foramen rotundum
Pterygoid process
Pterygoid
plates
89
Sphenoid
• Where?
– Spans the middle cranial fossa
• Why is it considered the keystone of cranium?
– Because it forms a central wedge that articulates with all other cranial
bones
• What does it consist of?
– Central body, 3 pairs of wings
– Greater, lesser, pterygoid processes
• What is the sella turcica?
– Area where pituitary gland is located
• What is the function of the anterior clinoid processes?
– Anchor the brain to the skull
• What are the pterygoid processes functions?
– Anchor pyterygoid muscles used for chewing
• What are the optic canals for?
– They allow optic nerves to pass to the eyes
• What is the superior orbital fissure’s function?
– It allows cranial nerves that control eye movements to enter the orbit
90
Sphenoid parts functions
• Sella turcica
– Seat of pituitary gland
• Optic canal
– Passage of cranial nerve II, opthamolic arteries
• Superior Orbital fissures
– Cranial nerves III, IV, part of V, opthamolic vein
• Foramen rotundum
– Passage of maxillary division of cranial nerve V
• Ovale
– Pass mandibular division of nerve V
• Spinosum
– Pass middle meningeal artery
91
• Where?
– Between sphenoid and nasal
bones (between nasal and orbits)
Ethmoid
• What forms roof of nasal cavity
and floor of anterior cranial
fossa?
– Cribriform plate
• What are the tiny holes in
cribriform that allow smell nerves
to pass to the brain?
– Olfactory foramina
• What is the crista galli’s function?
– Attach falx cerbri
• What are some other parts of the
ethmoid?
– Inferior, middle nasal concha
– Perpendicular plate
– Orbital plates
92
Ethmoid
Crista galli
Cribriform plate
Olfactory
foramina
Orbital plate
Left lateral mass
Ethmoid sinuses
Middle nasal concha
Perpendicular plate
93
Superior cranial cavity
Olfactory foramina
Anterior cranial fossa
Lesser wing
Greater wing
Tuberculum sellae
Hypophyseal fossa
Dorsum sellae
Posterior clinoid process
Middle cranial fossa
Temporal bone
Internal acoustic meatus
Frontal bone
Cribform plate
Crista galli
Ethmoid
Optic canal
Anterior clinoid process
Foramen rotundum
Foramen ovale
Foramen spinosum
Foramen lacerum
Jugular foramen
Hypoglossal canal
Posterior Cranial fossa
Parietal bone
Occipital bone
Foramen magnum
94
Vertebrae
• How many bones? What kind of bones?
– 26, irregular
• Name some functions of vertebrae?
– Transmits weight of trunk to lower limbs
– Surround, protect spinal cord
– Attachment site for ribs and muscles of back and neck
• How many in fetus?
– 33 separate bones
• How many eventually fuse and what do they become?
– 9
– Sacrum, coccyx
• What are the divisions? How many bones in each?
–
–
–
–
–
Cervical – 7
Thoracic – 12
Lumbar – 5
Sacrum
Coccyx
95
Vertebrae (cont)
• What are the four curvatures?
– Cervical, lumbar – concave posteriorly
– Thoracic, sacrum – convex posteriorly
• What are some abnormal curvature disorders?
– Scoliosis – Thoracic twisted
– Kyphosis – hunchback
• What are ligaments?
– Bands of fibrous tissue that connect and support bones
• What are the ligs of the vertebrae?
– Anterior, posterior longitudinal ligaments
• What are the intervertebral discs functions?
– Shock absorbers during walking, jumping and running
96
General structure of Vertebrae
•
What is the common structure of all vertebrae?
– Body anteriorly
– Vertebral arch posteriorly
– Vertebral foramen for vertebral canal (spinal cord)
•
What forms vertebral arch?
– Pedicles, laminae
•
What are pedicles?
– Short, bony pillars that form side of arch (project posteriorly)
•
What are laminae?
– Flat plates that fuse in median plane (posterior)
•
How many processes project from vertebral arch?
– 7
•
What are they?
Demifacet
(Thoracic
Only
Facet
(Thoracic
Only)
– Spinous – median, at junction of 2 laminae
– Transverse – lateral from each side of arch
– Superior, inferior articular processes – smooth joints called facets (covered
with hyaline cartilage) form movable joints with processes of vertebrae below
and above them
97
Vertebrae structure
98
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
99
100
101
Cervical Vertebrae
• Characteristics:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Smallest, lightest
First 2 unusual
Oval body
Wide
Spinous short (except for C7)
Large foramen
Transverse foramen
C7 is the vertebrae prominens
• C1 and C2 have
– no disc between
– Atlas – no body, spinous
• Superior articular receive occipital
condyle of skull
• Inferior joins axis
– Axis –
• Has dens (odontoid) process superiorly
from body
• Dens allow side to side movement
102
Thoracic Vertebrae
• Characteristics:
– All articulate with ribs
– First looks like C7, last four look like
Lumbar
– Increase in size from 1st to last
– Heart shape body
– Demifacets on each side (superior and
inferior) (T10 to T12 have single facet)
– Demifacets receive ribs
– Foramen circular
– Long, pointed spinous
– Superior and inferior facets lie mainly in
frontal plane
103
Lumbar vertebrae
• Characteristics:
– Most stress
– Massive, kidney shaped body
– Pedicles and laminae shorter
and thicker than other verts
– Short, flat, hatchet shaped
spinous (project backward)
– Triangle foramen
– Facets orientated different
than other vertebrae
104
Differences in Vertebrae
• Body:
Cervical
– C – small wide
– T – Larger than C, heart shaped
– L – Massive body
• Spinous process:
– C – short, has V notch
– T – Long sharp, projects inferiorly
– L – Short blunt, projects posteriorly
• Foramen:
– C – large triangle shaped
– T- small oval
– L – small triangular shape
Lumbar
Thoracic
• Transverse processes:
– C- contain foramen
– T- Have facets for ribs
– L – thin,tapered
105
C1 Atlas Superior view
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Anterior tubercle
Anterior arch
Facet for dens
Transverse process
Foramen transversarium
or transverse foramen
Superior articular facet
on lateral mass
Posterior arch
Posterior tubercle
Vertebral foramen
106
Cervical, Thoracic,
Lumbar, Sacrum
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Body
Vertebral foramen
Anterior tubercle
Posterior tubercle
Foramen
transversarium or
transverse foramen
Demifacet for head
of rib
Superior articular
process
Pedicle
Lamina
Transverse process
Spinous process or
spine
Lateral mass
Posterior sacral
foramina
Coccyx
Sacral hiatus
107
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Body
Facet for head of
rib
Superior
articular process
Superior
vertebral notch
Pedicle
Transverse
process
Inferior vertebral
notch
Inferior articular
process
Spinous process
or spine
Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar,
sacrum
108
Cervical Vertebrae
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
C1 or atlas
C2 or axis
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
Body
Vertebral
foramen
Bifid spinous
process or spine
Transverse
process
Foramen
transversarium or
transverse
foramen
Superior articular
facet
109
Vertebrae - Atlas
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Superior
Articular
Surface
Transverse
Foramen
Transverse
Process
Odontoid (Dens)
Facet
Vertebral
Foramen
Inferior
Articular
Surface
110
Axis
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Spinous Process
Lamina
Transverse Process
Pedicle
Superior Articular
Surface
Odontoid Process
(Dens)
Body
Vertebral Foramen
Inferior Articular
Surface
111
Cervical Vertebrae
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Spinous Process
Lamina
Superior Articular
Surface
Transverse
Foramen
Transverse Process
Body
Pedicle
Vertebral Foramen
112
Thoracic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Spinous Process
Lamina
Superior
Articular
Surface
Transverse
Process
Pedicle
Body
Vertebral
Foramen
Articular Facet
for Rib
Inferior
Articular
Surface
113
Lumbar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Spinous
Process
Lamina
Superior
Articular
Surface
Transverse
Process
Pedicle
Body
Vertebral
Foramen
Inferior
Articular
Surface
114
Sacrum
• Characteristics:
– Formed by 5 fused verts
– Articulates superiorly with L5 – inferiorly with coccyx, laterally with
hip bone (sacroiliac joint)
– Sacral promontory anterosuperior
– Four ridges: The transverse lines cross concave anterior aspect,
marking lines of fusion of sacral vertebrae
– Ventral sacral foramina penetrate sacrum at lateral ends of
transverse lines to transmit blood vessels and nerves
– Lateral to these and expanding superior are the alae
– Dorsal midline – median sacral crest
– Dorsal sacral foramina
– Lateral sacral crests
– Vertebral canal – sacral canal
– Sacral hiatus – opening where vert failed to fuse
115
Sacrum
alae
1.
2.
Promontory
Transverse
Ridges (lines)
3. Coccyx
4. Body of Sacrum
5. Sacral Canal
6. Superior
Articular
Surface
7. Median Sacral
Crest
8. Sacrum to Ilium
Articular
Surface
9. Dorsal Sacral
Foramina
10. Sacral Hiatus
Ventral
Sacral foramina
Lateral sacral
crest
116
Rib and Vertebrae
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Articular Facet of
Rib
Interarticular Crest
Neck
Articular Portion of
Tubercle
Nonarticular Portion
of Tubercle
Angle of Rib
Costal Groove
Body (shaft) of Rib
Articular Facet of
Transverse Process
Transverse Process
Spinous Process
Lamina
Vertebral Foramen
Sternal edge
117
Sternum
Clavicular Notch
Costal facet
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Jugular Notch
Manubrium
Sternal Angle
Body (Gladiolus)
Xiphoid Process
118
Bony Thorax
119
Bony Thorax
• What is included in bony thorax?
– Thoracic vertebrae dorsally, ribs laterally, sternum and costal
cartilage anteriorly
• How many ribs?
– 12 pairs
• What do they articulate with?
–
–
–
–
–
Posteriorly – thoracic vertebrae
Anteriorly – superior 7 rib pairs – directly to sternum (true)
5 (false) – indirectly to sternum or no sternal
Ribs 8-10 connect to cartilage joining to rib above
Ribs 11-12 – floating – no anterior attachment –
• Characteristics of ribs:
–
–
–
–
–
Bowed flat bone
Superior smooth, inferior sharp and thin
Costal groove – lodges nerves and blood vessels
Head and tubercle – join to the body and transverse process of vert
Tubercle is posterior and superior
120
Appendicular Skeleton
Pectoral & Pelvic Girdle, Upper & Lower Limbs
121
•
Where?
– Across superior thorax
•
Articulation:
– Medial sternal end – to sternal
manubrium
– Lateral acromial end – scapula
•
•
•
Clavicle
Medial 2/3’s convex anteriorly
Lateral 3rd concave anteriorly
Superior surface is?
– Smooth
•
Inferior surface is?
– Ridged and grooved
•
Function
– Anchor many muscles
– Act as braces
– Hold scapula and arms out
laterally away from superior
part of thorax
•
Not very strong, easy to fracture
122
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
sternal head
superior surface
sternal head
inferior surface
groove for subclavious
muscle
conoid tubercle
trapezoid line
acromial head
•
Identification aspects:
–
–
–
Clavicle
Conoid tubercle always
posterior/inferior
Medial surface always
convex, lateral concave
Acromial - lateral
123
Scapula Posterior
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Coracoid Process
Scapular Notch
Superior Border
Supraspinous Fossa
Superior Angle
Scapular Spine
Vertebral Margin
Infraspinous Fossa
Inferior Angle
Lateral Border
Glenoid Cavity
Margin (lateral angle)
12. Acromion Process
•
Identification:
–
–
Spine-posterior
Glenoid - lateral
124
Scapula (Ventral)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
superior angle
vertebral (medial)
border
inferior angle
subscapular fossa
infraglenoid tubercle
glenoid fossa
coracoid process
Acromion
suprascapular notch
125
Scapula lateral
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Coracoid process
Glenoid cavity
Scapular spine
Acromion process
Infraspinous Fossa
Inferior Angle
Axillary Margin
126
Scapula
• Where?
– Dorsal surface of rib cage, between ribs 2 and 7
• What are the 3 borders?
– Superior – shortest, sharpest
– Medial (vertebral) – parallels vertebral column
– Lateral (axillary) – abuts the armpit and ends superiorly in a small
shallow fossa, the glenoid cavity
• Articulation
– Glenoid cavity articulates with humerus of the arm
• What are the 3 angles? Where do they meet?
– Superior scapular border meets medial border at superior angle and
lateral border at the lateral angle
– Medial and lateral borders join at the inferior angle
127
Scapula (cont)
•
•
•
Features:
Anterior surface is?
– Concave and relatively
featureless
Posterior surface?
– Prominent spine easily felt
through skin
– Ends laterally in enlarged,
roughened triangular projection
called?
• Acromion
– Acromion articulates with?
• Acromial end of clavicle
– Which forms the?
• Acromioclavicle joint
•
Projecting anteriorly from superior
scapular border is what?
– Coracoid process
•
What is the coracoid process’
function?
– Helps anchor the biceps of the
arm
• Bounded by?
– Suprascapular notch
medially and glenoid
cavity laterally
• Several large fossae appear
on both sides of scapula. They
are?
– Infraspinous and
supraspinous fossae
– Named for their location
– Inferior and superior to the
spine
• What is the subscapular
fossa?
– Shallow concavity formed by
the entire anterior scapula
surface
128
Proximal Humerus
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
•
Head
Anatomical neck
Lesser Tubercle
Intertubercular Groove
Greater Tubercle
Surgical Neck
Deltoid Neck
(tuberosity)
Identify:
•
•
•
Head – medial
Shallow, distal coronoid
fossa – anterior
Capitulum – anterior
lateral
129
Humerus Distal
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Radial Fossa
Lateral Epicondyle
Capitulum
Trochlea
Medial Epicondyle
Coronoid Fossa
Olecranon Fossa
130
Humerus – proximal to middle of the bone
• Location
– Upper arm
• Articulation?
– proximal to the scapula (glenoid
cavity)
– distal to the radius and ulna
• What is at the proximal end?
– Smooth hemispherical head
• What does it fit into to?
– Glenoid cavity
• What is immediately inferior to
the head?
– Anatomical neck
• What tubercles are just inferior to
the neck?
• What separates these tubercles?
– Intertubercular (bicipital) groove
• What are tubercles function?
– Sites where muscles attach
• What is distal to tubercles?
– Surgical neck
• What is midway down shaft
laterally?
– Deltoid tuberosity (roughened
deltoid muscle attachment site)
• What runs obliquely down the
posterior aspect of shaft marking
the course of radial nerve?
– Radial groove
– Lateral greater tubercle
– Medial lesser tubercle
131
•
What are the 2 condyles at distal
end?
Humerus - Distal
– Medial trochlea – looks like hour
glass tipped on side
– Lateral capitulum – ball-like
•
What do these articulate with?
– Ulna and radius
•
What flanks these condyles?
– Medial, lateral epicondyles (muscle
attachment sites)
•
What is directly above these
condyles?
– Supracondyle ridges
•
What is responsible for the tingling
feeling when “funny bone” is hit?’
– Ulnar nerves that run behind the
medial epicondyle
•
Where is the coronoid fossa?
– Superior to the trochlea on the
anterior surface
•
Where is the Olecranon fossa?
– Posterior to the coronoid fossa
132
Humerus – distal
• What is the function of the coronoid and olecranon
fossae?
– They allow the corresponding processes of the ulna to
move freely when the elbow is flexed and extended
• What receives the head of the radius when the
elbow is flexed?
– Radial fossa
133
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Head of radius
Neck of radius
Radial Tuberosity
Radius (Shaft)
Styloid Process
Ulnar Notch
•
Recognition aspects:
–
–
–
Tuberosity –
anterior/medial
Styloid – lateral
Concave surface above
styloid - anterior
Radius –
Right/anterior
Radial Tuberosity
Anterior medial
Always anterior in
Anatomical position
134
Forearm- antebrachium
• Location:
– Lower arm
• Bones:
– Radius, ulna
• Articulation
– Proximal end with humerus
– Distal end forms joints with the wrist
– Radius and ulna articulate with each other both proximally and
distally at small radioulnar joints
• What connects the radius and ulnar across their entire length?
– Flexible, interosseous membrane
• What is the position of radius and ulna in anatomical postion?
– Radius – lateral on thumb side
– Ulna – medial on little finger side
• What happens in the prone position?
– Distal end of the radius crosses over the ulna and form an “X”
135
Ulna-right/
proximal/distal
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Olecranon process
Trochlear notch
Coronoid process
Tuberosity
Radial notch
Ulna shaft
Head of ulna
Styloid process
•
Identification aspects:
–
–
Radial notch always
lateral
Styloid process-medial
136
Ulna
• Main responsibility?
– Forming elbow joint with
humerus
• What are the 2 main
processes at proximal end?
– Olecranon, coronoid
processes
• What separates these?
– Trochlear notch
• What does the locking of the
olecranon process and
olecranon fossa do?
– Keeps the forearm from
moving posteriorly beyond
the elbow joint
• Where does the ulna
articulate with the head of the
radius?
– Radial notch
• Where is the ulnar head?
– At the distal end of the bone
by wrist
• What is medial to the ulnar
head?
– Styloid process
• What separates the ulnar
from the carpals?
– A disc of fibrocartilage
• Does it have any role in hand
movement?
– Little to none at all
137
Radius
• What is the superior surface of the head – convex or
concave?
– Concave
• Articulation
– Head proximal with the capitulum of the humerus
– Medially with the radial notch of the ulna
– Distal where the radius expands, medial ulnar notch with the
ulna
– Carpal bones
• The ulna contributes heavily to?
– The elbow
• The radius contributes to?
– Wrist
• What happens when the radius moves?
– The hand moves with it
138
Hand – Right Dorsal
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Styloid process of radius
Navicular (Scaphoid)
Lunate
Triquetral
Pisiform
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitate
Hamate
Metacarpal
Proximal Phalange
Middle Phalange
Distal Phalange
Styloid Process of Ulna
139
Hand – Right palmar
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Navicular (Scaphoid)
Lunate
Triquetral
Pisiform
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitate
Hamate
Metacarpal
Proximal Phalange
Middle Phalange
Distal Phalange
140
Carpus-Wrist
• What is the true wrist?
• The carpus. The proximal
part of the hand
• How many bones are in the
carpus? What are they
called?
• Which bones articulate with
radius?
– Scaphoid, lunate
• What bones make up the
distal row? (lat to med)
–
–
–
–
• 8 marble sized short bones
• Carpals
• How are they arranged?
• In 2 irregular rows of 4
bones each
• Which bones are in the
proximal row? (lateral to
medial)
•
•
•
•
Scaphoid
Lunate
Triquetral
pisiform
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitate
Hamate
Sally – scaphoid
Left – lunate
The – triquetral
Party – pisiform
To- trapezium
Take – trapezoid
Cathy – capitate
Home - hamate
141
Metacarpus - palm
• How many? What are they named?
– 5, No name. They are numbered from 1 to 5 from thumb to little
finger
• Articulation
– Bases with carpals proximally
– Each other medially and laterally
– Heads with proximal phalanges distally
• What is meta #1 and why is it different from the rest?
– The thumb
– Does not have a middle phalanx
142
Phalanges - Fingers
• What are other names for the phalanges?
– Fingers, digits
• How are they numbered?
– From 1 to 5 beginning with pollex (thumb)
• How many phalanges on each hand?
– 14
• What are the parts named?
– Proximal
– Middle
– Distal
• Thumb no middle
143
Os Coxa – Left lateral
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Anterior Superior Spine
Iliac Crest
Posterior Superior Spine
Posterior Inferior Spine
Greater Sciatic Notch
Body of Ilium
Ischial Spine
Lesser Sciatic Notch
Body of Ischium
Ischial Tuberosity
Obturator Foramen
Inferior Ramus of Ischium
Inferior Ramus of Pubis
Body of Pubis
Acetabulum
Anterior Inferior Spine
144
Identification:
•Acetabulum – lateral
•Pubis – anterior
•Ischial- posterior
Os Coxa – Left,medial
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Iliac Fossa
Anterior Superior Spine
Anterior Inferior Spine
Arcuate Line
Obturator Foramen
Symphysis Pubis
Articulating Surface
Ischial Tuberosity
Lesser Sciatic Notch
Ischial Spine
Greater Sciatic Notch
Sacrum Articulating
Surface
Posterior Inferior Spine
Posterior Superior Spine
Iliac Crest
145
Pelvic girdle - Hip
• What are its functions?
– Attach lower limbs to
axial skeleton
– Transmit upper body
weight to lower limbs
– Support visceral organs of
the pelvis
• What are the hip bones
named?
– Os coxae
•
–
–
–
•
•
• What is the hip, sacrum
and coccyx called?
– Bony pelvis
In childhood. Fuse in
adults
What is the name of the
deep lateral socket on
the pelvis?
–
•
Ilium
Ischium
Pubis
Are they separate?
–
• Articulation
– Each other anteriorly
– Sacrum posteriorly
What are the 3 bones of
the pelvis?
Acetabulum
What is its function?
What is the joint
called?
1.
2.
Receives head of femur
Hip joint
146
Ilium
• Where on the coxal?
– Superior region
• What does it consist of?
– Body
– Ala – wing
• Where is it thickest at?
– Tubercle of iliac crest
• Where does each iliac crest
end?
– Anteriorly – anterior
superior iliac spine
– Posteriorly – posterior
superior iliac spine
• What is below these?
– Anterior, posterior inferior
iliac spines
• What are these spines for?
– Attachment points for
muscles of trunk, hip, thigh
• Where is the greater sciatic
notch? What is it for?
– Inferior to posterior inferior
iliac spine
– Where sciatic nerve passes to
enter thigh
• What makes up the
posterolateral surface of the
ilium?
– Gluteal surface
• What 3 ridges cross it?
– Posterior, Anterior, inferior
gluteal lines
• What is the interior, concave
area?
– Iliac fossa
• What is posterior to this?
– Auricular surface
• What does ilium join
anteriorly?
– Ischium, pubis
147
Ischium
• What part of hip bone?
– Posteroinferior
• Articulation
– Body – ilium
– Ramus – pubis anteriorly
• What are the 3 major markings?
– Ischial spine – medially into pelvic cavity
– Lesser sciatic notch – just inferior to ischial spine
– Ischial tuberosity – strongest part of hip bone. Inferior surface of
ischial body
• What helps hold the pelvis together?
– Sacrotuberous ligament – massive ligament from sacrum to ischial
tuberosity
148
Pubis
• Where?
– Anterior of hip bone
• V shaped consisting of?
– Superior, inferior rami
– Medial body
• Articulation
– Medial to ischium
– Inferior to ilium
• What does the anterior border form?
– Pubic crest
• What is at the lateral end of pubic crest?
– Pubic tubercle
• What is the large opening of the hip bone?
– Obturator foramen
• What is the name of the fibrocartilage joining the 2 pubic bones?
– Pubic symphysis
• What is the arch that differentiates male and female pelve?
– Pubic arch
149
Pelvis - anterior
1. anterior
superior iliac
spine
2. superior pubic
ramus
3. ischial
tuberosity
4. inferior pubic
ramus
5. pubic
symphysis
6. pubic tubercle
7. Acetabulum
8. anterior
inferior iliac
spine
9. iliac fossa
150
Pelvis - posterior
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
iliac crest
greater sciatic
foramen
ischial spine
ischial tuberosity
Coccyx
sacrum (dorsum)
posterior superior
iliac spine
151
Pelvic structure/childbearing
• What is the difference
between female and male
pelvis?
– Female
• wider, shallower, lighter
and rounder
• Tilted forward
• What are the false and
true pelvis?
• Forms deep bowl
containing pelvic organs
• Dimensions critical for
childbirth
• What are the pelvic inlet
and outlet?
– Inlet – pelvic brim
– Outlet – inferior margin
of true pelvis
– False
• superior to the pelvic
brim
• Bounded by alae
laterally; lumbar
vertebrae posteriorly
• Part of abdomen
• Does not restrict
childbirth
– True
• Inferior to pelvis brim
152
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
•
Femur-proximal end/left
Head
Neck
Greater Trochanter
Intertrochanteric
Line
Lesser Trochanter
Shaft of Femur
Gluteal Tuberosity
Intertrochanteric
Crest
Linea Aspera
Identification:
•
•
Fovea
Capitis
Distal Patellar Surface
– anterior
Intercondyle notch posterior
153
Left femur-distal
Adductor tubercle
Lateral Epicondyle
Medial
Epicondyle
1. Medial
Condyle
2. Lateral
Condyle
3. Intercondylar
Fossa
Intercondyle
notch
154
Femur
• Location
– Upper leg
• Articulation
– Proximal – hip bone/
acetabulum
– Distal – tibia
• What is the name of the small
central pit at the head?
– Fovea capitis
• What is at the junction of the
shaft and neck?
– Greater and lesser
trochanters
• What connects these
trochanters?
– Intertrochanteric line
anteriorly
– Intertrochanteric crest
posteriorly
• What does the gluteal
tuberosity blend into?
– Linea aspera inferiorly
• What does the linea aspera
diverge into?
– Medial and lateral
suprachondyle lines
• What are all of these
markings?
– Muscle attachment sites
• Distally, the femur widens
into?
– Lateral and medial condyles
• What flanks the condyles
superiorly?
– Medial and lateral
epicondyles
155
Femur (cont)
• What is the patellar
surface?
– Articulation site for the
patella
• What is the deep U-shape
on the distal posterior
aspect of femur?
– Intercondyle notch
• What is superior to this?
– Smooth popliteal surface
• What is the patella?
– Triangular, sesamoid
bone enclosed in
quadriceps that secures
anterior thigh muscles
to the tibia
156
Left Tibia-proximal/distal/anterior
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
•
Distal
Tibiofibular
joint
Proximal
Tibiofibular
Intercondylar
Eminence
Lateral Condyle
Tibial Tuberosity
Anterior Crest
Medial Condyle
Anterior Surface
Medial Malleolus
Identify aspects:
–
–
joint
–
Tibial tuberosity
always anterior
Flattened side
always lateral
Medial malleolus
always medial
157
• Location
– Anterior shin bone
Tibia
• Articulation
– Proximal – femur – tibia condyles to the femur condyles
– Distally – talus of the foot
– Lateral to the fibula (tibiofibular joint)
• Parts
– Broad proximal end
• Medial and lateral condyles
• Intercondyle imminence
– Inferior to this
• Tibial tuberosity – anterior
• Lateral tibial condyle – proximal tibiofibular joint
– Middle of bone
• Anterior crest
– Distal end
• Medial malleolus
• Distal tibiofibular joint
• Articular surface
158
Left Fibula-proximal/distal/anterior
1.
2.
3.
4.
•
Head of Fibula
Neck of Fibula
Anterior Crest
Lateral Malleolus
Identifying aspects:
–
Lateral malleolus
always lateral
159
• Location
Fibula
– Posterior, lateral shin
• Articulation
– Proximal with the tibia
– Distal with the tibia medially and the talus distally
• Name of proximal and distal ends?
– Proximal – head
– Distal – lateral malleolus (ankle bulge)
• Does the fibula bear weight?
– No
160
Left foot superior
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Calcaneus
Talus
Navicular
Cuboid
Cuneiform, Middle
Cuneiform, Intermediate
Cuneiform, Lateral
Metatarsal
Proximal Phalange
Middle Phalange
Distal Phalange
161
• How many bones? Name them?
–
–
–
–
–
–
Tarsus
7
Calcaneus
Talus
Navicular
Cuboid
1st Cuneiform (Hallux), 2nd Cuneiform, 3rd Cuneiform
• What 2 tarsals carry most body weight?
– Talus, calcaneus
• What does the Achilles tendon attach to?
– Posterior surface of calcaneus
• What part of calcaneus touches the ground?
– Tuber calcanei, calcaneal tuberosity, sustentaculum tali
• Name the remaining tarsals:
– Lateral cuboid
– Medial navicular
– Intermediate, lateral cuneiform
• What do the cuboid and cuneiform bones articulate with?
– Metatarsal bones anteriorly
162
Left foot
lateral
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Calcaneus
Talus
Navicular
Cuboid
Cuneiform, First
Cuneiform,
Second
Cuneiform, Third
Metatarsal
163
• How many?
Metatarsus
– 5 small bones
• Articulation
– Distal – proximal phalanges of the toes
– Proximal – tarsals
• What is the first metatarsal?
– Great toe (Hallux)
• How are they identified?
– By number laterally from big toe
164
• How many?
Phalanges-Toes
– 14
• 3 in each digit except the?
– Hallux (big toe)
165
Arches of foot
• A segmented structure can only hold weight if it is?
– Arched
• What are the 3 arches of the foot?
– Longitudinal – medial and lateral
– Transverse arch
• What are the functions of these arches?
– Strength
• What maintains arches?
– Interlocking shape of foot bones
– Strong ligaments
– Tendon pull during muscle activities
• Which arch curves above the ground?
– Medial longitudinal
• Which is very low?
– Lateral longitudinal
• Where is the weight of the body distributed by these arches?
– ½ to heel bones, ½ to heads of metatarsals
166
1.
2.
Kneeanterior/
posterior
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Tibial Collateral
Ligament
Medial Condyle of
Femur
Posterior Cruciate
Ligament
Anterior Cruciate
Ligament
Lateral Condyle
of Femur
Fibular Collateral
Ligament
Lateral Condyle
of Tibia
Lateral Meniscus
Medial Meniscus
Medial Condyle of
Tibia
Tibia
Fibula
Transverse
Ligament
167
168
Basic structure, types, location
• What types of cartilage does skeletal cartilage contain?
– Hyaline, elastic, fibro
• What type of hyaline cartilage is in skeletal?
–
–
–
–
Articular – covers ends at movable joints
Costal – connect ribs to sternum
Respiratory – skeleton of the larynx
Nasal – support nose
• What type is elastic?
– External ear
– Epiglottis
• What type is fibro?
– Discs between vertebrae
– knee
169
What are the 2 ways cartilage grows?
• Appositional
– Cartilage-forming cells secrete new matrix against external
face of existing cartilage
• Interstitial
– Chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix
– Expand from within
• When does growth end?
– During adolescence
• Is calcified cartilage bone?
– No. Cartilage and bone are always distinct tissues
170
Classification of Bone
• What are the 2 groups?
– Axial
– Appendicular
• What is the axial?
– Skull, vertebrae, ribs
• Appendicular?
– Upper/lower limbs, girdles (hips,shoulders)
171
Structure of long bone
•
Diaphysis
– Shaft
– Surrounds medullary cavity. Adults – yellow bone marrow
•
Epiphysis
–
–
–
–
•
Bone ends
Interior spongy bone
Joint surface – articular cartilage
Epiphyseal line – between the diaphysis and epiphysis of adult bone; remnant
of epiphyseal plate (hyaline that grows during childhood) Also called
metaphysis
Membranes
– Glistening white outer cover?
• periosteum
– Where do nerve, blood, lymph enter diaphysis?
• Nutrient foramen
– Periosteum secured to bone by?
• Sharpey’s fibers
•
What covers internal bone surfaces?
– endosteum
172
Structure of short bone
• What design do all short, irregular and flat
bones share?
– Thin plates of periosteum-covered compact bone
sandwiching spongy bone in the middle
• Short bones have no what?
– Shaft or epiphysis
• What is the spongy bone called?
– Diploe
173
Hemopoietic tissue-red marrow
• Where is it found?
– Within trabecular cavities in long bone
– Diploe of flat bone
• What are those cavities called?
– Red marrow cavities
• Where does blood production occur in adult long bone?
– Only in head of femur and humerus
• What sites are usually more active and used for obtaining red
marrow samples?
– Diploe, irregular sites of flat bones (sternum, hip bone)
174
Compact bone
• What do canaliculi do?
– Tie all the osteocytes in osteon together
– Permit nutrients and wastes to enter and exit
– Maintain bone matrix
• What is interstitial lamellae?
– Incomplete lamellae that fill the gaps between forming osteons
• What are circumferential lamellae?
– Lamellae just deep to the periosteum and superficial to the
endosteum, that extend around the entire circumference of the
diaphysis and resist twisting of the bone
175
Formation of skeleton
• What is the skeleton of human embryo made of before week 8?
– Entirely fibrous membranes and hyaline cartilage
• What is it called when a bone develops from fibrous membrane?
– Intramembranous ossification
• What is the bone of this type of formation called?
– Membrane bone
• What is it called when bone is formed by replacing hyaline
cartilage?
– Endochondral Ossification
• What is this bone called?
– Cartilage or endochondral bone
176
Intramembranous Ossification
•
What bones are formed this way?
–
–
•
Skull
Clavicle
What type of bones formed this way?
–
•
Flat bones
What are the 4 major steps?
Step One:
–
What appears in the fibrous tissue?
•
–
Ossification center
What do mesenchymal cells do at this stage?
•
•
•
Cluster
Differentiate into osteoblasts
Form the ossification center
Step Two:
–
What do the osteoblasts do at this stage?
•
–
Secrete the osteoid
What do trapped osteoblasts become?
•
osteocytes
177
Intramembranous Ossification (cont)
Step 3:
– What is formed in step 3?
• Woven bone
• Periosteum
– What is a random network?
• Accumulated osteoid laid down between blood vessels
– What does this form?
• Trabeculae (spongy bone)
– What does vascularized mesenchyme condensing on the
external face of woven bone become?
• The periosteum
Step 4:
– What does thickened trabeculae just deep to the periosteum
form?
• Woven bone collar
– What is this replaced by?
• Mature lamellar bone
– What is a diploe?
• Compact bone sandwiching spongy bone
178
Endochondral Ossification
• What bones are formed this way?
– All bones of the skeleton below the base of the skull
• What is the model this process uses?
– Hyaline cartilage model
• When does the process begin?
– 2nd month of fetal development
• What is the primary ossification center?
– The region where long bone formation usually begins
• What sets the stage for this process to begin?
– Perichondrium infiltrated by blood vessels converting it to periosteum
– Mesenchymal cells specialize into osteoblasts
179
Endochondral Ossification (cont)
Step 1:
• What do the osteoblasts secretions against hyaline cartilage do?
– Encase it in a bone collar
Step 2:
• What does cartilage in the center of diaphysis do?
– Calcifies, cavitates (creates cavities)
• What do chondrocytes do at this stage?
– Hypertrophy (enlarge)
– Signal matrix to calcify
• What happens to the chondrocytes and the matrix at this stage?
– They die
– Matrix deteriorates
• What happens to cartilage elsewhere?
– Remains healthy
– Grows briskly
• What does this cause the cartilage model to do?
– Elongate
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Endochondral Ossification (cont)
Step 3:
• What is the periosteal bud?
– Collection of elements
•
•
•
•
•
•
Nutrient artery
Vein
Lymphatics
Nerve fibers
Red marrow elements
Osteoblasts, osteoclasts
• When does it appear?
– The 3rd month of development
• What are the osteoclasts and osteoblasts doing at this stage?
– Clasts – eroding calcified matrix
– Blasts – secreting osteoid around remaining cartilage
• What is this forming?
– Trabeculae (earliest version of spongy bone)
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Endochondral Ossification (cont)
• Step 4:
• What forms in stage 4?
– Medullary cavity
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Joints
183
Classification of joints
• What are the 2 ways to classify joints?
– Functional
– Structural
• Functional:
– Synarthroses
• Immovable (skull)
– Amphiarthroses
• Slightly movable (intervertebral, pubic symph)
– Diarthroses
• Freely movable (limbs, joints of limbs)
• Structural:
– Fibrous
• Bones joined by fibrous tissue – no joint cavity
• Most immovable or slightly movable
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Fibrous joints (cont)
• 3 types of fibrous joints:
• Sutures:
– Rigid splices of interlocking bone
– Where’s the only place they occur?
• Skull
• Syndesmoses:
– Joints where bones connect by cord or sheet of fibrous tissue called a
ligament
• Gomphoses:
– Resembles peg or socket (teeth)
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Cartilaginous Joints
• Bones connected by cartilage with no joint cavity
• 2 types:
• Synchondroses– Plate of hyaline cartilage connects the bones
– Epiphyseal plates of long bones, joint of 1st rib and manubrium
• Symphyses– Bones covered with articular hyaline cartilage fused to
fibrocartilage plate.
– All amphiarthritic (intervertebral, pubic symphysis)
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• Articulating bones
separated by fluid filled
joint
• All have:
– Hyaline both bony
surfaces
– Joint cavity
– 2 layer joint capsule with
outer fibrous layer
– Synovial membrane lining
fibrous capsule
– All internal joint surfaces
not covered with cartilage
– Synovial fluid fills joint
capsule
Synovial
Joints
• May have:
– Wedges of fibro
separating
– Sacs lined with synovial
membrane
187
6 types of synovial
• Plane
– Flat articular surface
• Hinge
– Similar to door hinge
188
Pivot joints
• Rotation of bone on
axis
• Ulna
• atlantoaxial
189
Condyloid joints
• Oval surface of one
fits into concave of
other
190
Saddle joints
• Each bone has concave
and convex surface
• Carpometacarpal of
thumb
191
Ball and Socket
• Round head of one
fits into concave of
other
• Humerus
• femur
192
Joint Injuries
• Sprain
– Overstretched, torn ligaments
• Cartilage
– Torn or overused. Does not heal. Must remove
• Dislocation
– Bones forced out of position
• Bursitis
– Inflamed bursae, tendon sheath. Overuse, stress,
bacterial, friction
• Arthritis
– Diseases that damage joints. Wear, bacteria, immune
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