Download Reading Assessment and Instruction

Reading Assessment
and Instruction
Using Levels of Functioning to
Assess Reading and Determine
Instructional Expectations
Factors in Deciding How to
Teach Reading
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Student attitude, energy, and
motivation
Effectiveness of previous
approaches
Clear diagnostic information of
specific reading problems (of the
individual)
Teacher knowledge of reading
strategies
Functioning Levels
Operationalized for Reading
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Independent: >98% word recognition
+ >90% comprehension. Thumbnail:
@95% overall
Instructional: 95% word rec. and
>75% comprehension. Thumbnail: @
80 - 90% overall
Frustration: <90% word rec. and
<50% comprehension.
Thumbnail:<80 % overall
Hierarchy of Instruction
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Reading for accuracy
Reading for fluency
Strands of Reading Curriculum
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word attack
word recognition
reading comprehension
Word Attack
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Definition
– Analysis of words
– Represent discrete oral sounds associated
with letters or groups of letters
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Scope and Sequence
– Should be developed according to observed
needs of the student and/or in relationship to
curriculum
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Major Approaches
– Phonics
– Structural Analysis
Performance Measures
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Isolated sounds - 70 spm @ 98%accuracy
Words in a list - 80 wpm @ 98% accuracy
Words in text - 100 wpm @ 98% accuracy
Sequence of Fluency Measures
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Sounds in isolation
Saying nonsense words
Saying phonetically regular words
Oral reading from text
Isolated prefixes and suffixes
endings, prefixes , & suffixes with
nonsense roots
Structural analysis of words
Word Attack Levels of
Assessment
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Knowledge
– Associate letters with sounds
– Recognize beginnings and endings
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Application
– Apply rules for decoding
• familiar words
• unfamiliar words
Error Analysis
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Topology
– reproduction errors
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Miscue analysis
– errors in grammar and/or meaning
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Specific word attack errors
– based on what has been taught
Word Recognition
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Definition:
– treating a group of letters as a single unit
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Scope and sequence
– Curriculum types
• Developmental
• Functional
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Major Approaches
– Student-specific words in the curriculum
– Overall fluency
Performance Measures
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Latency and rate
– words in isolation
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Passages in text
Levels of Assessment
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Associate letters in sequence as
words
– 95% accuracy
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Do so to automaticity
– 95% fluency
Reading Comprehension
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Definition
– ability to obtain meaning from print.
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Scope and Sequence
– Word attack and recognition are
important prerequisites
– Literal, inferential, and critical
comprehension
– Little consensus on what skills to teach
and in what sequence
Performance Measures of
Reading Comprehension
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Comprehension is measured indirectly:
– that is, they are inferential
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Often measurements of RC are more
accurately influenced by
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Language
Cognition/reasoning
Memory
Literary skills
Prior Knowledge
Language Influences on Reading
Comprehension
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To comprehend text requires
– knowledge of vocabulary (semantics) and
grammar (syntax)
– the student must know what words mean
• apart and in conjunction with other words
– language competence of the learner must
match the language demands of the text
– Reading comprehension cannot exceed
general language competence.
Cognition/reasoning Influences on
Reading Comprehension
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Prediction/extrapolation
– prediction requires going beyond information
presented
– extrapolationn reqires prediction plus making
unstated conclusions
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Higher order skills
– summarize, analyze, synthesize
Memory Influences on Reading
Comprehension
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immediate or long term recall/retell
recognition of main ideas or details
Literary Skills Influences on
Reading Comprehension
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Recognition of literary devices
– satire, irony, sarcasm
– similes, metaphors
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Interpretation
– literary devices
– poetry
Influence of Prior Knowledge on
Reading Comprehension
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Students can comprehend new material if
it covers something they already know
New material that covers something
unexperienced may be more difficult
Guidelines for Measuring Reading
Comprehension
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Measures should match vocabulary and syntax of
the material covered
Assessments should measure comprehension
(not analysis, synthesis, or evaluation)
Assessment should measure literal
comprehension
Assessment should allow the student see the
passages to avoid recall/memory influences
Assessment of comprehension should account
for prior knowledge
– pretest or provide relevant background information
Common Performance Measures of
Reading Comprehension
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Sentence verification tests
Student retelling
Time oral reading
Cloze procedures
Text comprehension quesitons
Sentence verification tests
(Prompted Written Recall)
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A group of sentences
– drawn from a passage
– with changed meaing
– distractors
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Student reads and answers (from memory)
whether information in sentences were in
or same in meaning as the original
passage.
>85% = Independent, 75-85% =
Instructional, <65% = Frustration
Student retelling
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Students read and paraphrase as
they go along
Students read entire passage and
paraphrase at the end
Procedures for scoring include
– Percent total words retold per words in
the passage
– Percent content words retold per
content words in the passage
Time oral reading
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Fluency of reading is highly
associated with reading
comprehension
– Measure words read correctly per total
words read
– Correct words per minute
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See Salvia and Hughes (1990) for
detailed procedures
Cloze Procedures
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Choose a grade level passage of 250
words
Provide a 25-word lead-in
paragraph/passage for reading sense
Delete every 5th word and replace with a
blank (@ 15 spaces each)
Provide a guided pre-sample for
understanding
Make the procedure untimed
Cloze Procedures
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Student reads the passage and says
or writes the missing words (spelling
not a concern)
Exact correct words or close
synonyms are accepted
>57% = Independent, 44-56% =
instructional, <44% = frustration
Answering Text Questions
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5 - 10 questions at appropriate
reading level
Use text explicit and implicit
questions
>90% = Independent, 75-89% =
Instructional, <75% = Frustration
Other Common Reading
Assessments
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Informal Reading Inventories
Content Reading Inventories
Textual Reading/Study Strategies
Observation/Error analysis
A Classroom Informal Reading
Inventory (In the Content Area)
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Pick 20-25 words from 2 grade levels to the
present (present to 2 grade levels above for
potentially advanced readers) using
appropriate subject matter texts.
Select passages of 200 -250 words from the
same texts.
Construct 5 questions for each passage:
include recall facts, inferential questions, and
vocabulary definitions.
Observation/Error analysis
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Checklists/Observational
Instruments
– Used to identify specific areas of
difficulty
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Error Analysis
– Used for identifying common errors to
target for instruction
Levels of Assessment
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Literal, inferential, and critical comprehension
require different assessments
Beginning students should assessed for literal
comprehension
Advance students can be assessed for higher
levels of comprehension
Inferential comprehension requires students to
analyze, synthesize and draw conclusions
Critical comprehension requires evaluation and
judgements of the reading’s worth.
Diagnostic Information
Assessment
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Compare reading proficiency of
students in the class with target
student
– Important to determine proficiency on
what the student can be expected to do.
– Reading Proficiency Statistics from
NCES
Reading Instruction for
Secondary Students
with Mild Disabilities
Strategies and Models
The Reading Process
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Motivational Analysis
Vocabulary Development
– Word Recognition,
– Word Knowledge (Definition)
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Teaching Comprehension
– Strategic Reading
– Strategic Teaching
Motivational Analysis
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Identify why student needs to read in
your content area
Identify why student will read in your
content area
Identify how student is convinced to
read in your content area (primary
and secondary reinforcers)
Attach reinforcers to reading
activities
Word Recognition (for highly
deficient readers)
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Identifying words
– use of computer assisted instruction or
flashcards
– Word ID strategies (e.g., DISSECT)
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Use word banks with motivational
inventories (token reinforcement)
Word Knowledge (Definition)
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Concept diagramming (mapping)
– Computer-generated maps (e.g.,
Inspiration)
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Finding synonyms,
Contextual analysis
Using Reference Sources
Morphemic Analysis
– Understand the parts, understand the
word
Strategic Reading
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Study Strategies
– Analyze sections of the text
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Comprehension Strategies
– RAP
• Read the paragraph
• Ask yourself what the paragraph is about
• Put the main idea and two details in your
own words.
Strategic Teaching
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Reciprocal Teaching
Direct Instruction
Adaptation Analysis
Reciprocal Teaching
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Summarize
Question
Clarify
Predict
Direct Instruction
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Structure the learning climate into
predictable activities that provide
– a high level of teacher-student, and studentstudent interaction
– make efficient use of learned strategies
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Teacher behaviors include
– questioning
– paraphrasing
– visual imagery
Adaptation Analysis
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Options
– Reduce the expected amount of
learning
– Match textbooks to learning abilities
– Enhance content through study guides
– Provide technology accommodations
– promote use of appropriate learning
strategies
Writing samples
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10 minute probes
Story starters (pictures)
Calculate the words written and
correct words written
– correct = spelled correctly and
appropriate mechanics
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Determine % accuracy of writing
sample.
Determine most appropriate writing
Writing Sample 1: Picture of a
flying saucer circling a small
town
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a green space
man comes to
boise. he kill
boys and girls.
there moms
and dads are
sad.
Writing Sample 2: Picture of a
party
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its a party and my
friends come to my
house. we dance
and Ill have lotsa
fun.
Sample 3: Picture of skier with
child
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my skisut is red. I
go fast on hills. my
sisters ski with me.
its to cold to ski for
a long time.
Reading Comprehension Sample
1
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In reading “Mary had a Little
Lamb”
– What do you think the teacher
would say if Mary brought the
lamb a second day?
Reading Comprehension Sample
2
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In reading “Mary had a Little
Lamb”
– How do you think Mary felt
about her day at school?