Download WORD - Dipartimento di Lingue, Letterature e Culture Straniere

English 1st yr
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Email: [email protected]
Monolingual dictionary use
History of English
Jeffries’s Book (ch.1 to 6)
Carter’s 3rd Chapter: Sentences and
structures
History of English
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H3r9
bOkYW9s
INDO-EUROPEAN
family of languages
• 3000 bc Proto-Indo-European
(reconstructed from Latin, Greek and Sanskrit)
• CELTIC – ITALIC – GERMANIC
GERMANIC:
North Germanic = Scandinavian languages
East Germanic = Gothic
West Germanic = German, Dutch, Frisian
and English
THE ORIGIN OF ENGLISH WORDS
• Where does the word English come from?
In the 5th/6th cent. 3 Germanic tribes invaded and
settled in the island (England) inhabited by the CELTS.
The ANGLES settled to the north of the river
Thames.
The JUTES settled in Kent, Hampshire & the
isle of Wight.
The SAXONS settled in the rest of Southern
England.
The 3 tribes probably spoke mutually intelligible
dialects. At that time the language was ENGLISC,
referred to as Anglo-Saxon.
OLD ENGLISH = 5th to 11th century
Traces of the origins in modern English
• CELTIC language:
Names of rivers: Avon, Dee, Ouse, Severn, Thames
Names of towns & cities: London, Dover, Leeds, York
• LOAN WORDS:
incorporated from other languages through BORROWING
• NATIVISED: spelling and pronunciation adapted to the
system
Which of these words were native English words and which
loan words?
Cheese-Curtain-Drift-Empty-Flavour-Grain-Hepatitis-Khaki
Misogynist-
ANGLO-SAXON words:
• Anglo-Saxon words occur more frequently than loanwords
• They tend to be short
• They are associated with a level of informality, e.g.
“Speaking Anglo-Saxon”= plain, blunt speaking
“Anglo-Saxon words”= taboo words/4-letter-words
Sweat/Perspire
Climb/Ascend
Book/Volume
Begin/Commence
BORROWED WORDS
• From incidental cultural contact
• From political conquest
• From cultural invasion
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The Norman Conquest –
The Crusades –
The Renaissance –
Second World War –
British Empire -
OLD NORSE
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SK - skill, skin, skirt, sky
SC - shirt
- BY Whitby, derby (village)
- SCALE Seascale (hut)
- THORPE Mablethorpe (small
village)
The NORMANS: FRENCH
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• MIDDLE-ENGLISH
- ity; - our; - ant
Higher level
Formal
Law
Social & cultural conditions:
gastronomic terms (grill, fry, stew),
hunt (chase, scent),
nobility (duke, viscount, prince),
chivalry (courtly, generous, enemy)
From Latin & Greek
- LATIN:
St.Augustine 597 & after the Renaissance
- ecclesiastical terms: ascension, baptize, salvation
-um; -us; -ex/-ix
- GREEK: agnostic, diagnosis, athlete
-is (analysis, crisis); - on (neutron,
phenomenon)
Let’s practise!!
Make a guess at the origins of the following words:
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Robot,
Boutique,
Anorak,
Barbecue,
Diktat,
Discotheque,
Karate,
Ombudsman,
Pyjamas,
Reportage,
Tycoon,
Shampoo,
Potato,
Troika,
Soprano,
Boomerang
From?
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French,
German,
Australian,
Russian,
Japanese,
Spanish,
Eskimo,
Swedish,
Hindi,
Czech,
Chinese,
Italian
Let’s practise!!
Make a guess at the origins of the following words:
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Robot:
Czech
Boutique: French
Anorak: Eskimo
Barbecue: Spanish
Diktat:
German
Discotheque: French
Karate:
Japanese
Ombudsman: Swedish
Pyjamas:
Hindi
Reportage:
French
Tycoon:
Japanese
Shampoo:
Hindi
Potato:
Spanish
Troika:
Russian
Soprano:
Italian
Boomerang: Australian
From?
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French,
German,
Australian,
Russian,
Japanese,
Spanish,
Eskimo,
Swedish,
Eskimo,
Japanese,
Hindi,
Czech,
Chinese,
Italian
Let’s practise!!
Look at the handout:
• Where did English words come from?
from 1 to 6
ENGLISH Chapter 3
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WORD STRUCTURES & CLASSES
SYNTAX
GRAMMAR: morphology & Syntax
MORPHOLOGY: the study of the
structure of words in a language
• MORPHEMES: the smallest unit of
meaning
Orthographic words
• An orthographic word is a written sequence
which has a white space at each end but no
white space in the middle
• Orthographic words exist only in written texts,
and they have no existence in speech.
MORPHEMES
• Singing: 2 morphemes = SING + ING
• But, BRIGHT, ICE, RINK are only one
morpheme
• Unlike phonemes, morphemes have an
identifiable meaning, eg – like, -ing, -ly,
etc.
Morphology
• Between the levels of phonology and
syntax
• Free morphemes: no addition
• Bound morphemes: affixes
• In English all lexical morphemes and
many grammatical ones are free.
Break the following words into their morphemes
Example: prefix = 2, pre + fix
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dogs =
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trusted =
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replacements =
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crying =
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governmental =
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grandmothers =
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milder =
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bicycle =
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environmentally =
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contemplation =
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linguistic =
Break the words into their morphemes
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prefix = 2, pre + fix
dogs = 2, dog + s
trusted = 2, trust + ed
replacements = 4, re + place + ment + s
crying = 2, cry + ing
governmental = 3, govern + ment + al
grandmothers = 3, grand + mother + s
milder = 2, mild + er
bicycle = 2, bi + cycle
environmentally = 4, environ + ment + al + ly
contemplation = 2, contemplat(e) + ion
linguistic = 2, linguist + ic
List the morphemes and state whether
they are free or bound
1. creating
2. seaward
3. wastage
4. incomplete
5. modernize
6. unhealthy
7. waiter
8. reconsider
9. keys
10. astronomer
ENGLISH WORD DIVISION
Ex.1 Analyze the following words into
morphs using the model given below:
inequality
PREFIX(ES)
ROOTS)
SUFFIX(ES)
in-
equal
-ity
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(a) hospitalization
(b) invisibly
(c) uninteresting
(d) undercooked
(e) transcontinental
(f) ungrammatical
(g) reinforcement
(h) prototypical
(i) unforgettable
(j) impropriety
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(k) disfunctional
(l) inconsiderate
(m) postcolonial
(n) unlikelihood
(o) relationship
(p) asymmetrical
(q) hypersensitivity
(r) unfriendliness
(s) interdependence
(t) monotheism
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(a) hospitalization
(b) invisibly
(c) uninteresting
(d) undercooked
(e) transcontinental
(f) ungrammatical
(g) reinforcement
(h) prototypical
(i) unforgettable
(j) impropriety
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(k) disfunctional
(l) inconsiderate
(m) postcolonial
(n) unlikelihood
(o) relationship
(p) asymmetrical
(q) hypersensitivity
(r) unfriendliness
(s) interdependence
(t) monotheism
ALLOMORPHS
• Different forms that a morpheme can
take:
• Plural morpheme (PL)
• Past morpheme (Past)
• http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/allomorph
From dictionaries to corpora
• http://corpus.byu.edu/
• Let’s explore differences and similarities
WORD FORMATION
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3 different processes of word
formation:
1) INFLECTION (English is not a highly
inflected language)
2) DERIVATION (a morpheme added
that changes meaning)
3) COMPOUNDING (2 equally free
morphemes)
INFLECTION
• All inflectional morphemes are suffixes
(=bound morphemes)
• Regular in form and meaning
• They do not change the class of the
word, but alter the grammatical form.
DERIVATION
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A morpheme added to the base form
They change the word class
Corresponding change in meaning
Less regular and less comprehensive
than inflection
COMPOUNDING
• The compounding of 2 free morphemes into
as single word
• The meaning of the resulting word is not
simply the sum of its parts
• Compound can only be understood if the
meaning is already known
• The grammatical category of a compound
word is always the same as the category of
the second morpheme
New Words
COMPOUNDING:
combining 2 or more existing words in order to
form a third word.
Most word-classes may contain compounds.
E.g. double-glazing, motorway, into, yourself…
CONVERSION:
a word is converted from one word-class to another
without change of form.
DERIVATION: adding to an existing word (affixes).
A linguistic process (historic), different word-classes (e.g. –ion),
another kind of word (e.g. -hood), meaning (e.g. dis-, un-).
- ation: derives a noun from a verb,
- ful : derives an adjective from a noun,
- ify : derives a verb from an adjective or from a noun,
- ly : derives an adverb from an adjective,
- ment : derives a noun from a verb,
En- : derives a verb from a noun,
Re- : .means ‘again’,
Be- : derives a verb from an adjective
WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES
• BLENDING
2 words together retaining one of each, e.g. telegenic
• CLIPPING
Abbreviated words, e.g. fridge, exam, ad
• BACK FORMATION
Removal of affixes, e.g. babysitter, double-glaze
• ACRONYMS
Composed of the initial letters of the words of a
phrase, e.g UNESCO, BBC
LEXICAL WORD CLASSES
• Lexical & grammatical words
• NOUN: mass or countable, or countable
nouns, propoer nouns.
• Function of a noun: to be the head of the
noun phrase and to work as subject, object,
complement or adverbial
• VERB: describing doing and being
• NON-finite forms (-ing, -en, i- forms)
• FINITE-forms: do not need an auxiliary verb
(Table 3.1)
Transitive & intransitive verbs
• Intransitive: I’m dying
• Transitive: she hates you
• Ditransitive: they gave me a beautiful
present
• Intensive verbs: She was really tired
ADJECTIVE & ADVERB
• Gradable adjectives: comparative &
superlative
• Non-gradable adjectives: semantic
groupings
• Adverbs: intensifiers & preopositional
phrases
Gradable adjectives
They are adjectives that describe qualities that can be measured in
degrees, such as size, beauty, age, etc.
They can be used
1) in comparative and superlative forms
2) with grading adverbs (such as 'very' or 'extremely')
3) to show that a person or thing has more or less of a particular
quality.
Examples
• angry, busy, happy, important, big, cold, hot,
frightened, kind, nice, expensive, risky, complex,
profitable, high, helpful, interesting, difficult.
Non-gradable adjectives
• 1) classifying adjectives: these
describe qualities that are completely
absent or completely present. They do
not occur in comparative or superlative
forms
• Examples: chemical, indoor, married,
wooden, pregnant, English, useless,
green, nuclear, domestic, digital.
Non-gradable adjectives
2) extreme adjectives: these are adjectives that mean "very" +
adjective
• Examples:
• ancient (very old )
• amazing ( very surprising )
• boiling ( very hot )
• brilliant ( very intelligent )
• deafening (very loud)
• delighted (very happy /pleased)
• disgusting (very bad /unpleasant)
• excellent (very good)
• exhausted ( very tired )
• fascinating (very interesting)
3) absolute adjectives:
dead, impossible, unique, perfect, supreme, final
GRAMMATICAL WORD CLASSES
• Small number & they rarely change
• Pronouns (table 3.3)
• Determiners: articles, demonstrative
adjectives, possessive adjectives
• Prepositions
• Conjunctions
• Auxiliary verbs
WORDS & SENTENCES
• WORD = A sequence of letters bounded by spaces
• SENTENCE = a sequence of words. The first of which
begins with a capital letter. And the last of which is
completed by a full stop, question mark or exclamation
mark.
These definitions are based upon our idea of
written language.
Is it the same in spoken language?
Sentences are not primarily about how you write them,
but about the kind of structures that they have.
Word boundaries
Confusion between writing and speaking!
• …….apynamilk
• He said he wanted a pint of milk (orthographic version)
COMPOUND WORDS /Compounds
Words that form a unit made up of 2 or more
single words: e.g. Time lag; time-lag; timelag
Criteria to establish boundaries between
words
In order to establish boundaries between words
linguists use a variety of criteria from several
linguistic levels:
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PHONOLOGICAL (sounds & their combination)
MORPHOLOGICAL (word structure)
SEMANTIC (meaning)
SYNTACTIC (sentence structure)
HOMOGRAPHS
• Words spelt the same, but with different
pronunciation & meaning?
e.g. bow, sow, refuse
HOMOPHONES
• Words pronounced the same, but with different
spellings & meanings?
e.g. feet/feat, practice/practise
Each sentence contains two homographs. The definition or a synonym of one of
the homographs follows the sentence. Underline the homograph that matches the
definition or synonym. The first three have been done for you.
1. Tracey didn’t feel well after falling into the well. in good health
2. Jim hunts, but he does not shoot does. female deer
3. There was a big row in the first row of the theater. fight
4. Let’s wind up the kite string before the wind gets too wild. moving air
5. If the judges are fair, our rabbit will win a ribbon at the fair. just
6. That creaking sound makes me wonder if this building is sound. in good
condition
7. The oil well is yours and the gold mine is mine. belonging to me
8. The dove dove to the ground to eat the peanut. dived
9. I found it hard to believe that he planned to found a new church.
establish, or start
10. The rose bushes rose out of the fertile ground. a kind of flower
11. I won’t shed a tear if you tear my old shirt into shreds. rip
12. The dog was happy when you dropped the ground beef onto the
ground. past of grind
HOMONYMS
• Words spelt and pronounced the same (same
form), but with clearly different meanings?
e.g. bank, stick, break
POLYSEMOUS
• Words spelt and pronounced the same (same
form), but with a number of senses or variants
of a single meaning?
e.g. grow
More than one part of speech
• Some words can be more than one part of speech, e.g.
• COOK: A cook is someone who cooks food.
• ORANGE: An orange is an orange fruit.
Use your dictionary to find out what parts of speech
these words can be:
TALK – HEAD – DRINK – FLAT START – RENT – SLICE - HEAT
WORD FORMS
• Words may have more than one spelling (medieval,
mediaeval);
• There may be variant forms of the same word (Katherine,
Kathryn, Catherine);
• There might be pronunciation variants, systematic
variations of sounds (accent);
INFLECTIONS :
in NOUNS, VERBS, ADJECTIVES
Spelling and pronunciation
reflect grammatical differences
To sum up: 4 types of ‘WORD’
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ORTHOGRAPHIC WORDS = spelling
PHONOLOGICAL WORDS = pronunciation
WORD-FORMS = grammatical variants
LEXEMES =
items of meaning, headwords of dictionary
entries, 1 orthographic word
His father wants to hand on to him his hard-earned
wealth, while his mother desires to put something more
valuable into his hand.
Count the number of words in the above sentence.
• WORDS as units of meaning, or items of vocabulary
(Lexemes)
• WORDS as defined by spelling, orthographic, phonological
words.
• WORDS as representatives of family variants: eg costly,
costlier, costliest ( Lemma and its word forms)
LEXEMES in dictionaries
• HEADWORDS : base forms of the word, ‘citation
forms’.
• VERBS: present tense form or the infinitive
without ‘to’/ the form that is not suffixed.
• NOUNS: the singular common case form.
• ADJECTIVES: the absolute form.
• The entry under a particular headword may
contain derived lexemes (they belong to a
different word class)
MULTI-WORD LEXEMES
• PHRASAL VERB = single lexemes
- a verb followed by an adverb particle that
can be positioned after the object.
e.g. Jane has thought up a good excuse
• PREPOSITIONAL VERBS = not always
regarded as single lexemes
- a verb followed by a preposition particle
(it belongs to the following phrase)
e.g. look after, think about,
LEXICAL & GRAMMATICAL WORDS
• LEXICAL classes are open (nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs)
• GRAMMATICAL or FUNCTION
words/classes are stable (pronouns,
determiners, prepositions, conjunctions,
adverbs, auxiliary verbs)
There is a gradation between completely lexical
(e.g.nouns) and completely grammatical (e.g.
articles) word-classes, with many classes falling
somewhere between 2 extreme points. (p.16-17)
NOUN
PREPOSITION
PRONOUN
DETERMINER
(e.g. the, this)
VERB
CONJUNCTION
ADVERBS
like here, now
AUXILIARY
VERB
ADJECTIVE
QUANTIFIER
POSSESSIVE
Determiner
(e.g.my)
ADVERBS
in - ly
ADVERBS
(like however)
Least lexical
Least grammaticalMost grammatical
Most lexical
English - Chapter 4: PHRASE
Phrase structures.
• Noun phrase
• Verb phrase
• Adjective phrase
• Adverb phrase
• Prepositional phrase
Types of grammatical units
If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it
1 sentence
If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it
2 clauses
If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it
7 phrases
If I wash up all this stuff somebody else can dry it
12 words
If I wash up all this stuff some body else can dry it
13 morphemes
A unit consists of one or more
elements
• A CLAUSE (proposizione) consists of one or more
phrases.
• A PHRASE (locuzione) consists of one or more words.
• A WORD (parola) consists of one or more
morphemes
• MORPHEMES (morfema) are parts of words, i.e.
stems, prefixes, suffixes
e.g. Unfriendly: un+friend+ly = 3 morphemes
• MORPHOLOGY (morfologia):
the part of grammar dealing with morphemes
• SYNTAX (sintassi):
the part of grammar dealing with other types of
grammatical units (words, phrases, clauses and
sentences)
The ways in which
words are combined to make phrases
Phrase structures
• In English, phrase classes reflect the 4
major lexical word classes.
There are noun phrases, verb phrases,
adjective phrases and adverb phrases.
Each is centred on a head word of the
relevant class.
What makes a structure a phrase
and not a clause?
• Clauses have a conceptual
completeness that is missing when a
phrase is uttered alone.
• Phrases, like words, form part of larger
structures and are not usually complete
in themselves
Prepositional phrase:
• On my chest of drawers near the
window.
Noun phrase:
• The longest walk I ever did.
Adverbial phrase:
• Absolutely brilliantly!
Noun phrase
(NP)
• It is based around a head noun, which is
the core of the phrase and the shortest
possible version of the noun phrase
Ex. Power made him crazy.
a single head noun
A noun phrase can only have one determiner
There can also be pre-determiners &
enumerators
p.105-106
Noun phrase
• The noun phrase in English is made up
of 3 functional elements:
• Pre-modification
• Head
• Post-modification
(p. 113)
Noun phrases
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A noun phrase includes a noun—a person, place, or thing—and the
modifiers which distinguish it.
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You can find the noun dog in a sentence, for example, but you don't
know which canine the writer means until you consider the entire noun
phrase:
ex. that dog, Aunt Audrey's dog, the dog on the sofa, the neighbor's dog
that chases our cat, the dog digging in the new flower bed.
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Modifiers can come before or after the noun. Ones that come before
might include articles, possessive nouns, possessive pronouns,
adjectives, and/or participles.
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Articles: a dog, the dog
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Possessive nouns: Aunt Audrey's dog, the neighbor's dog, the police
officer's dog
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Possessive pronouns: our dog, her dog, their dog
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Adjectives: that dog, the big dog, the spotted dog
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Participles: the drooling dog, the barking dog, the well trained dog
VERB PHRASE
• The verb phrase fulfils the role of
predicator in the clause and introduces
a process (action or event).
• The simplest verb phrase will be a main
lexical verb on its own
• The party started about 9 o’clock.
• My brother always sings in the bath.
MODAL AUXILIARIES
• may, might, will, would, shall, should, can,
could, ought (to)
• Modality is an important semantic contribution
to the interpretation of any text
• Epistemic modality: likelihood
• Deontic modality: desirability
• She should be here by now (I know that she
left in plenty of time).
• She should be here by now (It’s not polite to
be so late for a wedding).
• P.121
ADJECTIVE, ADVERB &
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
• Adj.P: an adjective on its own, or premodified
by an intensifying adverb:
She is pretty
• Adv.P: the simplest of all English phrases,
being made up of only an adverb and any
premodifying intensifiers that are also part of
the adverb class:
. . . very closely
• Pre.P: it is made up of a preposition and a
noun phrase
In a moment or two the cortege will emerge
from the Abbey .
Chapter 5: Clause & Sentence
• Clauses, the building block of English
sentences and utterances
• Clauses can be combined to make complex
and compound sentences.
• A complete clause must contain a predicator
(the verbal element) and other clause
elements such as: subject, object,
complement, adverbial.
Clause functions
• Relationship between various phrase classes
(noun/verb/adjective phrases) and their clause
functions = the role that a unit plays in the larger
structure
5 clause elements in English:
• Subject (S)
• Predicator (P)
• Object (O)
• Complement (C)
• Adverbial (A)
Although clause elements are parts of a clause,
at times they are made up of subordinate clauses.
SUBJECT
• The SUBJECT is a syntactic function,
mainly fulfilled by noun phrases but also
by a subordinate clause.
• When is a predicator not preceded by a
subject?
• Go to bed!
• After closing the curtains she turned on the TV
• Subjects usually ‘do’ something, unless
the verb phrase is in the passive form
PREDICATOR
• The only place where form and function map onto
each other.
• All full clauses contain predicators.
• In main clauses and finite subordibnate clauses the
predicator normally follows the subject.
• All my children are tall
• Only verb phrases function as predicators, but at
times some parts of the verb take on noun or
adjective-like functions, ex.
• My broken heart (will never mend)
• Her playing (was sublime)
• The predicator is the first element in non-finite
subordinate clauses with no-subject, ex.
• Having identified the body his wife was very upset
OBJECT
• It may be direct or indirect
• Its function is fulfilled by noun phrases,
but a clause may also take its place.
• I crossed the street
• She hopes that he will come back to her
• It usually corresponds to the element
affected by the verb, but it may have
other semantic relationships with the
process, ex.
• My mother knitted a tea cosy
COMPLEMENT
• A syntactic function fulfilled by a
nominal or an adjectival element
• They occur after ‘intensive’ verbs, or by
verbs of ‘change’.
• SUBJECT Complement: She seems nice
• OBJECT Complement: Paul’s training made him a doctor
ADVERBIAL
• Also called ADJUNCT
• Different forms fulfill the function of an
adverbial clause element, and not all of
them are based on adverbs.
• Prepositional phrases may have an
adverbial function
• They answer implicit questions such as:
when, where, how, why.
• Positioning of adverbials
Form-function relationships
Simple clause structures:
• 5 elements: S P O C A
• 7 basic clause structures:
SP-SPO-SPC-SPA-SPOO-SPOC-SPOA
• P. 140 instructions
Coordinated structures:
With phrases, with matching structures, with
different structures
Subordinate structures
SUBORDINATE STRUCTURES
• Subordination = Embedding
Chapter 6 - SEMANTICS
• Lexical meaning
• Multiple meaning
• Lexical description
• Semantic contexts
Criteria to establish boundaries between
words
In order to establish boundaries between words
linguists use a variety of criteria from several
linguistic levels:
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PHONOLOGICAL (sounds & their combination)
MORPHOLOGICAL (word structure)
SEMANTIC (meaning)
SYNTACTIC (sentence structure)
HOMOGRAPHS
• Words spelt the same, but with different
pronunciation & meaning?
e.g. bow, sow, refuse
HOMOPHONES
• Words pronounced the same, but with different
spellings & meanings?
e.g. feet/feat, practice/practise
Each sentence contains two homographs. The definition or a synonym of one of
the homographs follows the sentence. Underline the homograph that matches the
definition or synonym. The first three have been done for you.
1. Tracey didn’t feel well after falling into the well. in good health
2. Jim hunts, but he does not shoot does. female deer
3. There was a big row in the first row of the theater. fight
4. Let’s wind up the kite string before the wind gets too wild. moving air
5. If the judges are fair, our rabbit will win a ribbon at the fair. just
6. That creaking sound makes me wonder if this building is sound. in good
condition
7. The oil well is yours and the gold mine is mine. belonging to me
8. The dove dove to the ground to eat the peanut. dived
9. I found it hard to believe that he planned to found a new church.
establish, or start
10. The rose bushes rose out of the fertile ground. a kind of flower
11. I won’t shed a tear if you tear my old shirt into shreds. rip
12. The dog was happy when you dropped the ground beef onto the
ground. past of grind
HOMONYMS
• Words spelt and pronounced the same (same
form), but with clearly different meanings?
e.g. bank, stick, break
POLYSEMOUS
• Words spelt and pronounced the same (same
form), but with a number of senses or variants
of a single meaning?
e.g. grow
Lexical meaning
• semantics, lexical semantics, pragmatic
meaning.
Multiple meaning
• homonimy, homophones, polysemy,
word senses.
Lexical description
• semantic fields, semantic features,
sense relations (synonymy, hyponymy,
meronymy, antonymy).
Semantic contexts
• collocation,connotation.