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Introduction Grammatical Hierarchy Definition of GRAMMAR GRAMMAR: the structural system of a language. the branch of linguistics that deals with syntax and morphology (and sometimes also deals with semantics) Linguistics Syntax Grammar Morphology Semantics Five Ranks The grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks: the Sentence the Clause the Phrase the Word the Morpheme Diagram of the five ranks: Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank: Sentence Clause Phrase Word Morpheme Example A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents---the morphemes. Sentence Clause These undergraduates are rapidly improving in their writing. Noun Phrase Verb Phrase are are These undergraduates rapidly improving Morphemes Phrases Prepositional Phrase in their writing Words 0.1 Morphemes 1.Definition: the minimum or smallest grammatical unit the smallest meaningful element of speech. 2.Classification: Two categories: 1) Free Morphemes 2) Bound Morphemes. *3) Allomorphs 3. Diagram of Morpheme 1) Free Morphemes 1. Definition: has a complete meaning can stand by itself as a Simple Word can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech to form Compound Words Derivatives 2) Bound Morphemes are mostly affixes also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other forms cannot stand by itself: it only exists as an Inflectional or Derivational Affix Inflectional Affix -’s (genitive case) -s/-es (plural nouns) -s/-es (the third person singular verbs in simple present) -ed (past tense verbs) -ing, -ed (-ing participle, -ed participle form of verbs) -er, -est (comparative, superlative degree of adjectives/ adverbs) Derivational Affix Prefix, Suffix (Prefix) + Root + (suffix) co-exist existence co-existence Diagram of Morpheme Free morpheme Free M + Affix Free M + Free M Morpheme Bound morpheme Derivative Compound word Word-formation Inflectional Affix Affix -’s, -s -ing, -ed/-en -est, -er, -s,-es Prefix + Root Derivational Affix Suffix 3) Allomorphs Definition: The variants of the same morpheme are called allomorphs. Explanation: the same morpheme in different contexts may take different phonological or orthographical forms. Examples: In Orthography: inimil inactive immature illegal incoherent immortal illogical inexperienced imperfect illegible In phonology: -s cats dogs houses /s/ /z/ /iz/ irirrational irregular irrelevant 0.2 Words is composed of one or more morpheme. can be classified in two ways: in terms of word-formation grammatical function In terms of Word-formation a) Simple Word b) Derivative c) Compound Word a) Simple Word: also called Morpheme Word (free morpheme) minor but has frequent appearance and strong derivational ability the main body of English vocabulary usually the small word at near take on hand make down foot b) Derivative: Structure: (prefix) + root +(suffix) : unkind ness Influence the meaning of the root Influence the part of speech of the root c) Compound Word Structure: Free Morpheme + Free Morpheme Classification: Compound Noun Compound Adjective Compound Verb Compound Adverb Compound Pronoun Compound Conjunction Compound Preposition In terms of grammatical function Closed-class words Open-class words Closed-class words Definition: Closed-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are closed or limited in number and are only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional members. Scope: All the Function Words: Preposition Pronoun Determiner Conjunction Auxiliary Open-class Words Definition: Open-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are indefinitely extendable. New items are constantly being created and old items are giving place to new ones. Scope: All the Content Words: • • • • Noun Adjective Adverb Main Verb NOTE: Cardinal Numeral, Ordinal Numeral and Interjection are between closed and open 0.3 Phrases Definition: is composed of one or more than one word. is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key Word as its Head. The word class of the Head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized. Word Class of Phrase : 1. Noun Phrase 2. Verb Phrase 3. Adjective Phrase 4. Adverb Phrase 5. Prepositional Phrase 1) The Noun Phrase: Structure: (Determiner) + (Pre-Modifier) + Noun + (Post-Modifier) all the college Determiner students Noun as the Head Noun as the Pre-Modifier Exercise Prepositional Phrase Non-finite His new book on phonology Verb Phrase Milton lived in the 17th century The author’s new novel novel that will soon come out Clause 2) The Verb Phrase: Classification : In terms of the amount of verbs Simple Verb Phrase Complex Verb Phrase In terms of grammatical form Finite Verb Phrase Non-finite Verb Phrase Simple Verb Phrase: Structure: (Modifier) + Main Verb + (Modifier) She looks pale. Main Verb We utterly detested him. Modifier + Main Verb Complex Verb Phrase: Structure: Auxiliary /Auxiliaries + Main Verb + (Modifier) It is getting dark. She ought to have told him about it. Joan will certainly object and so will Mary. Finite Verb Phrase: A finite verb phrase is initiated by a finite form, that is, a verb form that changes according to Tense or Subject. Verb phrases I loved you two years ago. Person/ Number Tommy loves Lora. Children love fairy tales. Tense Non-finite Verb Phrase: A non-finite verb phrase is initiated by a non-finite form, that is, a verb form that does not change according to Tense or Subject. We went there to see a film. Robert seldom goes there to see a film. Andrew will go there to see a film. I usually go there to see a film. Finite Non-finite Point out finite and non- finite verb phrases: Having seen the film, we had a discussion. Painted by a famous artist, the portrait is invaluable. Tired from studying all afternoon, she went for a walk. Opening the book slowly and tentatively, she began to read. Non-finite Finite 3) The Adjective Phrase: Structure: (Modifier) + Adjective + (Post modifier / Complementation) The course is pretty difficult difficult. I’ll be glad to help you repair the car if you show me what’s wrong. 4) The Adverb Phrase: Structure: (Modifier) + Adverb + (post Modifier) He spoke loudly and clearly. 5) The Prepositional Phrase: Structure: (Modifier) + Preposition + Complementation in the the north. north The weather has been fine except in Now their footsteps could be heard directly my head. head above my the benefit benefit of of some We are collecting money for the some orphans orphans. 0.4 Clauses: is composed of one or more than one phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrase and logically a construction of “Subject + Predicate”. Classification: 1) In terms of grammatical function: 2) In terms of the “Subject + Predicate” construction: 3) In terms of the relation between the clauses 4) In terms of verb phrase type 5) Verbless clauses 1) In terms of grammatical function: Independent clause (IC) stand by itself act as a complete utterance Dependent clause (DC) forms only part of another clause or phrase He knows everything about it. I don’t think he knows everything about it. Quiz: I went to the store. I didn't buy any bread. IC. IC. I went to the store; I didn't buy any bread. IC; IC. I went to the store, but I didn't buy any bread. IC, IC. I went to the store; however, I didn't buy any bread. IC; IC. When I went to the store, I didn't buy any bread. DC, IC. I didn't buy any bread when I went to the store. IC DC. 2) In terms of the “Subject + Predicate” construction: Simple Clause only one construction of “subject + predicate” Complex Clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements Examples: simple or complex? IC It is not true. Simple Simple IC What you said is not true. Complex IC DC He said that it was not true. Simple Complex IC Complex DC He complained that what you said was not true. Complex DC Complex 3) In terms of the relation between the clauses In a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause. Example: Main Clause Subordinate Clause He complained that what you said was not true. Subordinate Clause Main Clause 4) In terms of verb phrase type: In terms of verb phrase type: Finite Clause: takes a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb Non-finite Clause: takes a non-finite verb phrase as its predicator I signed the paper to get the license. (Non-finite clause) It is forbidden to smoke in this room. (Non-finite clause) Quiz: Finite or Nonfinite? 1. Everybody left just after the ceremony 2. Inviting your sister was not a great decision Finite Nonfinite 3. I'll be home around ten if my train is on time. Finite 4. They expect Susan to do all the work. Finite 5. Deprived of oxygen, plants will quickly die Nonfinite 5) Verbless clauses is marked by the absence of any form of verb element is just a construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element. Hungry and exhausted, the climbers returned. Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with excitement. 0.5 Sentences A. Features B. Definition C. Classification A. Features: the highest rank of grammatical unit. the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse Based on one or more than one clause can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. B. Definition a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function. C. Classification Full and Minor Sentences A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situations can stand by itself and perform a communicative function. Minor sentences are extensively used in informal discourses. A: When did he arrive? B: Last night. No smoking! Fire! Full Sentence A Full Sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing. Classification Classification of Full Sentence: Simple Sentence one independent clause Compound Sentence Two or more coordinated independent clauses Complex Sentence an independent clause comprising one or more dependent clauses as its elements Compound-complex Sentence Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause Examples: Some students like to study in the mornings. S. S. Jack and James play football every afternoon. S. S. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English. S. S. Cpd. S. We had to go inside when it started raining. Cpx. S. As long as it isn't cold , it doesn't matter if it rains. I admire Tim, but he doesn't admire me, although I try hard to impress him. Cpx. S. Cpd. Cpx. S. The End