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Reformation and CounterReformation
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The Reformation- Another great development at the
end of the Middle Ages/Beginning of Early modern
period.
Religion united both the intellectual elite and the
people.
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Overall pre-occupation was with God and especially
Salvation (getting to heaven).
Split Europe into two ideological camps.
It allowed new ideas to develop and have a chance
to become widespread.
Causes of the Reformation
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Primary Causes
Corruption in the Catholic Church:
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Simony (sale of church offices),
Pluralism (official holding more than one office),
Absenteeism (official not participating in benefices),
Sale of indulgences,
Nepotism (favoring family members e.g. Medicis),
Moral decline of the papacy,
Clerical ignorance
Secondary Causes
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Renaissance Humanism: de-emphasis on religion, secularism, individualism
Declining prestige of the papacy
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Babylonian Captivity
Great Schism
Conciliar Movement
Reformation Era -Catholic Doctrine
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Salvation – faith and good deeds – sins must
be atoned for by good works (prayer) or time
in purgatory –
Reservoir of good deeds from the lives of
saints
Church could bestow that grace upon anyone
it in place of their time in purgatory
Clergy was essential to help guide people to
heaven
Transubstantiation
Critics of the Church
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Emphasized a personal relationship with God
as primary
John Wyclif (1329-1384), England, Lollards
John Hus (1369-1415), Czech
The Brethren of the Common Life:
Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of
Christ
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
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Began challenge to Rome in 1517.
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His main concern was with personal salvation
comes from “faith in God”
Justification (setting right before God), was the
most important thing for him.
Johann Tetzel (1465-1519) authorized by
Pope Leo X to sell indulgences “As soon as a
coin in the coffer rings, the soul from
purgatory springs.”
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Tetzel was leading the purchasers to believe that
the Letter of Indulgence was freeing them from all
responsibility for their actions.
95 Theses:
Criticized sale of indulgences
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As a response Luther wrote his 95 Theses (formal
statements) and posted them on the door of the local
church.
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The 95 Theses were copied and then printed and widely
distributed.
The ideas expressed in the 95 Theses include:
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Salvation by faith alone
No need for sacraments
Bible is the only authority
Consubstantiation (specifics in communion)
Challenged the concept of monastic life
Everyone has an equal relationship with God
Don’t need priests
Luther on Trial
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John Eck (1486-1543): debated Luther
at Leipzig in 1520;
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Luther denied both the authority of the pope
and the infallibility of a general council
Excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1520
Luther is put on trial by Charles V at the
Diet of Worms (1521)
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Tribunal of the HRE with power to outlaw
and sentence execution through stakeburning
Luther’s Struggle
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Edict of Worms: Luther outlawed by the HRE
Charles declared Luther an outlaw, but was unable to enforce
his decision
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Luther was supported by influential (and relatively independent)
German princes
Political struggle between Pope Leo X and Charles
Pressure from Ottoman Empire
Conflict with France
Luther’s Supporters
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Princes
- Deep religious convictions
- Helped them centralize their control,
- Kept tax money from going to Rome
- Confiscate church lands (monastic)
Saw a chance to protest against the pope
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Eventually became known as the Protestants
Free Towns
- Clearly separate church and civil powers
- Urban priests embraced Protestantism, increased personal power
Women
- Mainly noble women
- Gave equal spiritual footing to women
- Increased the emphasis on the family as the primary societal unit
Common People
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Luther’s Ideas spread:
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Translated Bible into German
Followers of Luther became known as
Lutherans
Mass held in German language
No priests
Confessions of Augsburg, 1530
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Written by Luther’s friend Philip Melanchthon
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Attempted compromise of religious faith to unite Lutheran
and Catholic princes of the HRE;
Rejected by Catholic princes
Became traditional statement of Lutheran beliefs:
Salvation through faith alone
Bible is the sole authority
Church consists of entire Christian community
Impact on Women:
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Stressed marriage and the Christian home
Marriage was a woman’s career,
Women should be educated – schools for girls (Philip
Melanchthon
Spread of Protestantism
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Charles V seeks to stop Protestantism and preserve
unity of Catholicism
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Habsburg-Valois Wars: five wars between 1521 and 1555
France tried to keep Germany divided (although France was
Catholic)
Political impact of Lutheranism in Germany: division lasts
until late 19th century.
Northern Germany
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League of Schmalkalden, 1531: formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran)
princes to defend themselves against the Emperors drive to re-Catholicize
Germany.
Francis I of France allied with League (despite being Catholic)
Peasants’ War (1524-1525) (also known as Swabian Peasant uprising)
Twelve Articles,1525: peasants demanded end of manorialism
(feudalism)
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Inspired by Luther; Luther opposed to violence and peasant movement.
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As many as 100,000 peasants killed
Anabaptists, John of Leyden (1509-1536): voluntary association of
believers with no connection to any state
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Munster: became Anabaptist stronghold; tragedy at Munster—Protestant
and Catholic forces captured the city and executed Anabaptist leaders
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Mennonites: founded by Menno Simmons became descendants of
Anabaptists
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Millenarians: sect that expected imminent return
of Christ
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Unitarianism:
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Denied deity of Christ but believed in Christian principles.
Michael Servetus (1511-1553) burned at stake
Luther’s views on new sects and the peasantry:
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Did not believe in violent protest nor legitimacy of any other
faith except mainstream Protestantism
Switzerland
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Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531), established leadership in
Zurich
Colloquy of Marburg (1529): Zwingli splits with Luther over
issue of Eucharist (communion)
 Zwinglianism:
 Abolish relics, images, pilgrimages and other traditions
 Abolish mass in favor of services
 Did not believe in consecration of Eucharist (symbolic
only)
 Abolish pope’s authority
John Calvin (1509-1564)
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Believed in salvation by faith and predestination
Advanced the Reformation in French speaking
areas.
Ended up in Geneva
Wrote: Institutes of the Christian Religion
(1536)
Introduced the concept of the “Puritan or
Protestant work ethic”.
Most militant and uncompromising of all
Protestants
Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva
Calvinism
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Emphasized the absolute power of God
Don’t need structure of the Church, power rests with God
Salvation at the mercy of God
Predestination meant that you were selected by god and should do God’s
work on earth (Elect)
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- Calvinists felt able to reject the state - led to religious wars in short
term. Calvinists often felt themselves to be justified - gave confidence to
Calvinist entrepreneurs.
Believed that they should spread their faith to others
Create govt. in Geneva
 Consistory would punish crimes
 Dancing, singing, swearing
 Elect should rule
 How do you know you are one of the elect?
 Live right, wealth / success
Spread of Calvinism: far greater impact on future generations than Lutheranism
Calvinist Offshoots
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Presbyterianism in Scotland, John Knox (15051572); presbyters (church elders) governed church
Huguenots – French Calvinists; brutally suppressed
in France
Dutch Reformed – United Provinces of the
Netherlands.
Puritans and Pilgrims (a separatist minority)
Marian exiles brought Calvinism to England (puritans)
in England; established colonies in America
Countries where Calvinism did not spread: Ireland,
Spain, Italy
3. Reformation in England
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Early attempt- John Wycliffe (13291384): Lollards
Henry VIII
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1509 - Henry became King (18 years old)
2nd of Tudor kings—considered a “New Monarch”
Initially strong ally of Pope: Defense of Seven Sacraments;
Defender of the Faith”
Wife #1: Catherine of Aragon (Hapsburg), wife of Henry’s Brother Arthur
-1516 daughter: Mary
-1527 Henry decided Catherine could not have a male child
-Needed male child to prevent civil war over succession (War of the Roses)
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Wanted a new wife, but could not get a divorce
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Asked the Pope to declare the marriage illegal
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Cardinal Thomas Wolsey: failed to get Henry’s divorce
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Pope Clement VII says nothing
-Charles V (Hapsburg) would not let the Clement end the marriage of his
Aunt (Catherine of Aragon)
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Henry called together Parliament
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Reformation Parliament:
 Legalized Henry’s divorce
 Declared Henry to be the leader of the church (not the Pope)
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Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, 42 Articles of Religion: grants Henry his
divorce
Wife #2: Anne Boleyn (1527)
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Daughter: Elizabeth
1534 Parliament approved the Act of Supremacy
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Declared that the king was the head of the church of England
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Henry seized all church property and sold it to the nobles
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If the Catholic Church returned to England then the nobles would
lose this property
1536 still no male child, Anne Boleyn beheaded
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1539, Statute of the Six Articles: Henry attempts to maintain
certain Catholic sacraments
Wife #3: Jane Seymour
-1536 Edward was born (Jane dies in birth)
Wife #4: Ann of Cleves
German princess who did not look like her portrait
Wife #5: Catherine Howard
Committed adultery and was beheaded
Wife #6: Catherine Parr
- More of a nurse than a wife, out lives Henry
-1548 Henry died, Edward becomes king at the age of 12
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-Mary became queen after Edward’s
death
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Catholic - tried to restore the Catholic
religion in England
Resulted in persecution of Protestants and
the Marian Exiles
Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603)
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The “Virgin Queen”
Effectively oversaw the development of Protestantism in
England
Had to deal with the return of radical Protestants and Catholics
 Marian exiles: Protestant sympathizers flee and come back
to support Elizabeth
 39 Articles created a compromise between the radicals and
conservatives defined creed of Anglican Church
Puritans and Pilgrims (Separatists) sought to reform the
church; Pilgrims left for Holland and then America
Anabaptists: Adult Baptism, church only for the saved
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Seen as radical and attacked
THE CATHOLIC COUNTER
REFORMATION
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Catholic Church reformed itself
Council of Trent (1545-63) 18 Years
This re-established Catholic norms.
It even cleared up previously undefined areas.
It was very anti-Protestant.
The Jesuits - Shock troops of the Church. Insisted on intellectual rigor.
The Index of Forbidden Books. –
It allowed the church to control what books could be published in some
Catholic countries.
Pope Paul III: Most important pope in reforming the Church and
challenging Protestantism
New Religious Orders
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Ursuline order of nuns (1544): Sought to combat heresy through
Christian education
Jesuits (Society of Jesus)
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(1540): 3 goals—reform church through education, preach
Gospel to pagan peoples, fight Protestantism
Spiritual Exercises: contained ideas used to train Jesuits
Ignatious Loyala (1491-1556): founder; organized in
military fashion
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Beginning in 1542, oversaw Spanish and Italian Inquisitions
Spain: persecution of Mariscos (Christian Moors) & Marranos
(Christian Jews)
Succeeded in bringing southern German and eastern Europe back
to Catholicism
Sacred Congregation of the Holy Order, 1542, in papal states:
Roman Inquisition
Index of Prohibited Books: catalogue of forbidden reading
Ended heresy in Papal States; rest of Italy not affected
significantly
Council of Trent
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(3 sessions 1545-1563): established Catholic dogma
four next 4 centuries
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Equal validity of Scripture, Church traditions, and writings of
Church fathers
Salvation by both “good works’ and faith
7 sacraments valid; transubstantiation reaffirmed
Monasticism, celibacy of clergy, and purgatory reaffirmed
Approved Index of Forbidden Books
Church reforms:
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Abuses in sale of indulgences curtailed
Sale of church offices curtailed,
Bishops given greater control over clergy
Seminaries established to train priests
Peace of Augsburg,
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1555: Cuius regio,eius religio—“whose the region, his the religion.”
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Princes in Germany can choose Protestantism or Catholicism
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Resulted in permanent religious division of Germany
Results of Reformation
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The Counter Reformation made Catholic countries firm in their
Catholicism - and made it very hard, for non-believers to live there.
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Much harder to express new opinions and ideas in Catholic Countries
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Most of the new ideas that made modern world grew up in Protestant
countries and France (Value of diversity of states in Europe?).
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Unity of Western Christianity was shattered: Northern Europe
(Scandinavia, England, much of Germany, parts of France, Switzerland,
Scotland) adopted Protestantism.
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Religious enthusiasm was rekindled
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Abuses remedied:
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Religious wars broke out in Europe for well over a century.