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Chapter 13
Reformation and Religious
Warfare in the Sixteenth Century
Earlier Reforms:
A Reminder…
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Benedict, Gregory, Cluniacs
Mendicant Orders – e.g. Franciscans
Theology of Aquinas
Wm. Of Occam and Nominalism
Mysticism/Lay Piety
Beguines/Beghards
Wycliffe (Wyclif) and Lollardy
Hus and the Hussites
Conciliar Movement
Prelude to Reformation:
Christian or Northern Renaissance Humanism
 Catholic Reform was a major goal of Northern
Humanism
 Return to original sources of Christianity –
Medieval theology had gotten too
complicated
 Latin Fathers – Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome
(Vulgate)
 Greek Fathers – Chrysostom, Basil
 Hebrew Sources – original Old Testament
 Reexamine university theology – but had to
do it at NEW universities where there was
less resistance – places like Wittenberg!
Prelude to Reformation:
Immediate Circumstances
 Forerunners – Circumstances
 Emerging nation-states led to severe
oppression and conformity of people
 Religious revolt was a way to preserve
freedom and independence in the midst
of this oppression
 Forerunners – People
 Desiderius Erasmus (1466 – 1536)
 In Praise of Folly (1511)
 “Laid the egg that Luther hatched…”
 Wanted Reform within the Church
 Thomas More
Erasmus of Rotterdam
 Utopia, meaning nowhere or anywhere
 Everyone cooperates, lives a life of religions
devotion
 Died defending the notion of ONE Christian
Church
Church and Religion on the
Eve of the Reformation
Hangeth
loose!
Reliquaries
stored relics,
which brought
in lots of $ and
were often
stolen by
monks!
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Church Corruption
Meaning of Salvation
Relics
Popular devotion “Modern Devotion”
 Thomas A Kempis –
The Imitation of Christ
 Clergy fails to
Reform
Martin Luther & the German Reformation
 The Early Luther
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Law Student
Becomes a monk
Doctorate in Theology (1512) Wittenberg
“Justification by Faith”
Believes in only TWO sacraments: Baptism
and Eucharist
 Primacy of the Bible as the sole religious
authority
 Johann Tetzel and Indulgences
Say
WHAT?!?
 Pope Leo X and St. Peter’s Basilica
 Albrecht of Brandenberg and the purchase of
3rd office – Archbishopric of Mainz
 Albrecht’s loan from Jacob Fugger
 Money needed to repay Fuggers AND build St.
Peter’s…
 SELL INDULGENCES!
 “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the
soul from Purgatory springs!”
Martin Luther & the German Reformation
It’s crooked.
 The Ninety-Five Theses
(1517)
 Pamphlets (1520)
 Address to the Nobility of the
German Nation
 The Babylonian Captivity of the
Church
 On the Freedom of a Christian Man
 Leipzig Debate w/Johan Eck
(1519)
 Excommunication (1521)
 Diet of Worms (1521) –
“Here I stand” – Luther’s an
OUTLAW by the Edict of
Worms
Lutheranism takes off!
Wait til people
read these 95
theses! All
hell’s gonna
break loose!
Hammer
time! Holla!
 Spread through Germany
 Luther’s rejection of Catholic
clerical hierarchy leads to the
establishment of state control
of the Lutheran church
(princes).
 Wittenberg
 Center for Reformed Church
 U. of Wittenberg students
graduate and spread ideas
 Some followers of Luther
break off to start more radical
sects
Spinning Out of Control…
Ouch!
 1524 Peasants’ Revolt – “Strike
while the iron is hot!”
 Andreas Karlstadt leads mass
destruction of churches and art
(iconoclasm)
 Luther responds “Against the
Robbing and Murdering Hordes of
Peasants”, encouraging the princes
to retaliate…and they did!
 Some were “slowly roasted”
 Thousands were massacred
Legacy of Luther:
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Salvation by faith and faith alone
TWO sacraments: Baptism and Eucharist
Clerical marriage
Individual interpretation of bible
No relics or celibacy
Women’s role as mother and wife
Germany and the Reformation:
Religion and Politics
 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1519 – 1556)
 Francis I of France (1515 – 1547)
 Habsburg – Valois Wars (1521 – 1544)
 Pope Clement VII (1523 – 1534) sides with Francis I! Why?
 French-HRE animosity
 Suleiman the Magnificent (1520 – 1566) – stopped by Charlie V in
Vienna 1529.
 Germany’s fragmented political power
 Diet of Augsburg (1530)
 Lutherans ordered to return to Catholicism
 Schmalkaldic League formed in defense, eventually victorious with help of
French allies under Henry II.
 Peace of Augsburg (1555)
 Division of Christianity acknowledged
 “Whose region – his religion”
 In the end, Charles was too busy to put a
lid on things early
©2003 Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.
The Empire of Charles V
The Spread of the
Protestant Reformation
 Lutheranism spreads to
Scandinavia where political
fragmentation has occurred
 The Zwinglian Reformation
Body of
Christ! Eat it!
 Swiss Confederation
 Ulrich Zwingli (1484 – 1531)
Luther and Zwingli fail to see eye-toeye at the Marburg Colloquy over the
issue of the Eucharist: ‘hoc est corpus
meum’ (?) – symbolic or literal
“presence” (consubstantiation)?
 Religious unrest in Zurich
 Seeks alliance with German
reformers
 Philip of Hesse organizes Marburg
Colloquy (1529) – fails
 Transubstantiation (RCC) vs.
Consubstantiation (Luther) vs.
“Memorialism” (Zwingli remembrance) of Eucharist
 Swiss Civil War –Zwingli killed
The Radical Reformation:
The Anabaptists
 Church was a voluntary association of
believers
 Adult baptism
 Complete separation of Church and State
 Swiss Brethren – expelled from Zurich
 Anabaptism takes off in Germany
Munster and the “New Jerusalem”
Separation from the World
Millenarianism
John of Leiden – book burning, communal
ownership, polygamy
 Protestants AND Catholics combine to lay smack
down!
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 Menno Simons (1496 – 1561) – Mennonites
The cages still hang
today! Only in
Germany!
 A more peaceful form of anabaptism
 Survived to evolve into other Baptist sects
The Reformation in England
I’m not a 
playa, I just
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crush a lot
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Henry VIII (1509 – 1547): “Defender of the Faith”
Catherine of Aragón (First Wife)
Henry seeks to dissolve marriage
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Anne Boleyn (Second Wife)
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Catherine of Aragon, Anne
Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of
Cleves, Catherine Howard, 
Catherine Parr (divorced,
beheaded, died, divorced,
beheaded, survived!)
Elizabeth I
Beheaded for adultery
Thomas Cramner, Archbishop of Canterbury and
Thomas Cromwell – Reformation Parliament
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Leviticus
Wolsey’s failure
Act of Supremacy (1534)
Submission of the Clergy
Act of Succession (heirs)
Edward VI (1547 – 1553) Book of Common Prayer
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2 sacraments
Denial of transubstantiation
Justification by faith
Clerical marriage
Lady Jane Grey controversy
Mary I, “Bloody Mary” (1553 – 1558)
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Intends to restore Catholicism to England
Influence of Cardinal Pole (and return of Papal influence in
England)
Alliance with Spain and Marriage to Philip II
Cranmer and 300 Protestants executed
John Calvin and the
Development of Calvinism
I’m
predestined
for
salvation!
John Calvin (1509 – 1564)
Institutes of Christian Religion (1536)
Predestination; unadorned churches
Calvinism: militant form of
Protestantism
 Two Sacraments
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 Baptism
 The Lord’s Supper (Eucharist)
 Geneva
 Ecclesiastical Ordinances: Church
Constitution with 4 orders (pastors,
teachers, elders, deacons)
 John Knox in Scotland
The Social Impact of the
Protestant Reformation
 The Family
 Marriage and Sex (no more ABSTINENCE!)
 Positive family relationships
 Women’s Roles
 Women left with few alternatives in Protestantism
 Convents had provided women with an alternative to
marriage and also with education
 Religions Practices and Popular Culture
 Changes in Religious Practices
 Changes in forms of entertainment
 Protestantism and Capitalism?
An Assault on Tradition?
Bruegel’s Fight between Carnival and Lent satirized the confusing world of Reformation
Europe. Protestants attacked these traditions in the Catholic Church, and the Catholics
responded by turning away from Carnival traditions to avoid such criticisms.
The Catholic Reformation
I shall do my
Spiritual Exercises
to save my soul!
 The Society of Jesus
 Ignatius of Loyola (1491 – 1556)
 The Spiritual Exercises
 Jesuits recognized as a religious order
(1540)
 Absolute obedience to the papacy
 Francis Xavier in India and Japan
 Three major objectives of Jesuits
Loyola
(top);
Bernini’s
“Ecstasy”
of St.
Teresa
illustrating
Baroque
style
 Education crucial to combating
Protestantism
 Propagation of Catholic faith among nonCatholics (missionaries)
 Fight Protestantism
 Baroque Art
Catholics and Protestants in Europe in 1560
The Council of Trent
 Met intermittently from 1545 – 1563 (3x)
 Divisions between moderates and conservatives –
Contarini vs. Carafa
 Reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings
 Scripture and Tradition
 Faith and Good Works = salvation
 Sacraments – all 7 (Baptism, Eucharist, Penance,
Confirmation, Marriage, Holy Orders, Anointing of the Sick)
A Revived Papacy
 Pope Paul III (1534 – 1549)
 Reform Commission (1535 –
1537)
 Recognized Jesuits
 Council of Trent
 Roman Inquisition (1542)
 Pope Paul IV (1555 – 1559)
 Cardinal Carafa won out!
 Index of Forbidden Books
 Finally abolished in 1966
Politics and Wars of Religion in
France (1562 – 1598)
Catherine de’Medici
 Treaty of CateauCambresis ends HapsburgValois Wars (1559) (Francis
I and Henry II vs. Charles V
and Philip II)
 King Henry II dies suddenly
leaving his young sons
Francis II, Charles IX and
Henry III to rule
 Their mother, Catherine
de’Medici controlled them,
as did the noble families
Politics and Wars of Religion in
France (1562 – 1598)
 Emergence of Protestantism
 Geneva near France – many French
influenced by Calvinism
 Conversion of the 40 – 50 percent of French
nobility to Calvinism (called Huguenots)
 Bourbon family among them – very powerful
 The Ultra Catholics and the Guise family
 These families vied for control of the
young kings
 Massacre at Vassy (1562)
 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572)
Henry of Guise and
Henry of Navarre
 Pope strikes a medal!
 Philip II laughs!
Politics and Wars of Religion in
France (1562 – 1598)
 War of the Three Henries
 King Henry III (Valois)
 Henry of Guise (uberCatholic)
 Henry of Navarre (Calvinist)
 Henry IV of Navarre (1589 –
1610)
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
 Bourbon Dynasty
 Converts to Catholicism:
“Paris is well worth a mass.”
 Politiques
 Edict of Nantes (1598)
 One of the most loved
monarchs in French history
The Militant Catholicism of
Philip II (1556 – 1598)
I’m the
most
Catholic
king.
Philip II of Spain
 Inherits lands from father Charles
V that includes Spain,
Netherlands, Naples, Milan, and
New World conquests.
 Importance of Catholicism in
Spain based on history under F&I
 The Holy League: Restore
Catholicism!
 Battle of Lepanto (1571) vs. Turks
 “Most Catholic King” ultimately
cripples Spain with failed military
campaigns
The Revolt of the Netherlands
I’m sexy
and Dutch
and I don’t
say much.
 Philip tries to strengthen his control
 Calvinists in 7 Germanic northern provinces;
Catholics in French/Flemish southern provinces
 Philip cracks down on Protestants
 Resentment against Philip for this and taxes
leads them to destroy Catholic churches
 Duke of Alva
 Council of Troubles/Council of Blood
 William of Nassau, Prince of Orange “William
the Silent”
 Dutch Sea Beggars torment Spanish sailors
 Pacification of Ghent (1576)
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Duke of Parma: Union of Arras (1579)
William’s Union of Utrecht
Twelve Year Truce: 1609
United Provinces of the Netherlands/Dutch
Republic
 Recognized by Spanish as independent in
1648
William the Silent; Relief of Leyden, 1571
The England of Elizabeth (1558-1603)
I’m the
virgin
queen.
 Learns to be a politique
 Elizabethan Settlement: Anglicanism
 Repeals Mary’s extreme Catholic policies
 Act of Supremacy (1559) focuses on
secular rule
 Act of Uniformity restores Book of
Common Prayer, revised
 Thirty-Nine Articles as concession
 Mary Queen of Scots
 Cousin Mary chased out of Scotland
 Ridolfi and Babington Plots
 Execution, 1587
 Puritan threat quelled
 Sir William Cecil and Sir Francis
Walsingham as joint secretaries of
state
Mary Queen of Scots beheaded
The England of Elizabeth (1558-1603)
 Cautious Foreign Policy
 Support for Netherlands
 Francis Drake and the Sea Dogs
 Conflict with Spain
 The Spanish Armada (1588)
 Spanish fought “in God’s cause” and
hoped for a “miracle”
 However, a “Protestant Wind” ensured
otherwise…
 In realist, superior English ships were
more easily maneuvered in narrow
English Channel
 Elizabeth’s reign very successful
Drake; Defeat of the
Spanish Armada
Discussion Questions
 How did the failings of the Catholic Church lead to
the Reformation?
 What were Martin Luther’s complaints against the
Church?
 What political reasons lay behind the “Wars of
Religion?”
 How and why did Henry VIII break away from Rome?
 How did the Catholic Church react to the
Reformation? Was it effective?
 What troubles did Philip II of Spain have to confront
during his reign and how successful was he in
dealing with them?
Web Links
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The Reformation
Project Wittenberg – Martin Luther
CCEL – John Calvin
Le Poulet Gauche
Tudor History
BBC – The Spanish Armada
History Learning Site – The Counter
Reformation