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Semiconductors and sensors An example on how to use them. Possible uses of semiconductor material • 1. As passive elements (sensors) • 2. As active elements: handling of signals (diodes, transistors,...) • 3. In computers (chips, memory,...) • .... • We concentrate on the first and the second use. Accelerators. The biggest particle accelerator in the world is built in the neighbourhood of Geneva, some 100 m beneath the surface. In a tunnel that is 27 km long, electrons en positrons make 11000 turns a SECOND. They almost have the speed of light. Physicists organise collisions of very high energetic electrons and protons ...... in the hart of gigantic detectors. These detectors are used to measure and calculate the track,energy, charge, velocity and mass of hundreds of particles that emerge from these collisions. Detectors These detectors are shaped like onions, built of different layers. These layers measure different quantities of the particles. Some of them are made of semiconductor material. Every sensor in the detector produces information... ... there are thousands of these sensors... ... and all this information should be passed to computers without errors! An example: the UA1 This detector is a cilinder. It is hollow and inside there are thousands of charged wires. A charged particle that goes trough the detector causes a signal in all the wires it passes by. The cilinder is 15 m long and 3 m high. The signals caused by particles passing by are analysed by computers. Knowing from which wire the signals come from, they can reconstruct the track of these particles. With this detector very rare particles (W en Z bosons), were found. In 1983, this was so important that only a few years later this work was rewarded with a Nobelprize. So, the wires transport these signals to the side of the cilinder, where it enters a print. Every wire is connected to a different print. Let ‘s have a closer look.... .... and closer! .... and closer... ... or still closer! Diodes Transistors IC’s Operational amplifiers. Chips Memories .... .... ...tens of thousands! Everything based on semiconductortechnology! Finally... Thousands of wires, many different particles passing by each second, causing signals in many wires... Get it? Indeed, the enormous computer capacity that is needed to do all this calculations. And again... computers also are based on semiconductor technology! More information? http://webcast.cern.ch/Projects/WebLectureArchive/index.html http://wwwpdg.cern.ch/pdg/cpep/adventure_home.html http://wwwpdg.cern.ch/pdg/cpep/accel.html http://www.fnal.gov/pub/hep_descript.html http://wwwpdg.cern.ch/pdg/cpep/detectors.html http://alephwww.cern.ch/EDUC/alephdesc.html P.S. Of course, one computer was not sufficient to do all this work . They needed more, and it was absolutely necessary that these computers could « talk » to each other. That is exactly why the WWW was developed by CERN: to let physicists exchange data more easily.