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Most Missed Topics for Final Exam Psychology 100 Winter 2008 Read This! Here are some guidelines for the ten most missed questions from midterm two. These topics will appear again on the final exam. The same questions will not be asked, but the topics will be revisited. Also, please beware that not every topic from the most missed is necessarily on here. These are just basic guidelines. Enjoy and happy studying! Anne E-mail: [email protected] Approaches to Intelligence Intelligence (Ch. 10) Approach Definition Examples Psychometric Emphasizes products of intelligence, especially scores on intelligence tests (i.e. higher the IQ score equals higher intelligence) Spearman g: general intelligence S: specific intelligence Thurstone 7 Primary mental abilities Catell Fluid: basic reasoning and problem solving abilities Crystallized intelligence: specific knowledge gained through experience Information Processing Examines mental operations (process) involved in intelligent behavior (i.e., attention and memory) The speed of basic processes and the amount of attentional resources available make significant contributions to performance on IQ tests. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory There are 3 dimensions to intelligence; analytic (book smarts), creative (thinking out side of the box), practical (street smarts) IQ tests measure only analytic intelligence, but creative intelligence (which involves dealing with new problems) and practical intelligence (which involves adapting to one’s environment) may also be important to success in school and at work Approaches to Intelligence Intelligence (Ch. 10) Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence Eight semi-independent kinds of intelligence Linguistic: Shakespeare Logical-mathematical: Einstein Spatial: Picasso or taxi driver Musical: Mozart or The Beatles Body-kinesthetic: Michael Jordan Intrapersonal: Freud or Dr. Phil Interpersonal: Oprah or Gandhi Naturalistic: Darwin or Jane Goodall Question Ask any good chef, and they’ll tell you that meals should not only taste great, but should look attractive as well. Thus, according to Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory, the most successful chefs should have a high degree of ____________ intelligence. A. B. C. D. Analytic Linguistic Creative Emotional Question Ten-year old Marianne has autism and is unable to socialize normally with other children. However, when presented with a complex mathematical problem, she is able to produce an accurate answer within seconds. Cases such as this, in which a person is barely able to function in one area but is exceptionally skilled in another, support the notion that we possess __________. A. B. C. D. Special intelligences A general intelligence Multiple intelligences Creative intelligence Focusing Light Sensation (Ch. 4) Make sure you know the parts of the eye: cornea, pupil, iris, lens, and retina Accommodation: focusing ability of lenslens changes shape and bends light rays Photoreceptors: convert light into neural activity Rods- black and white Cones- colors Focusing Light Sensation (Ch. 4) Cornea: light enters eye through this (curved, transparent, protective layer) Pupil: Light then passes through this structure— the black part of the eye Iris: Adjusts amount of light allowed into the eye (the colored part) Lens: Bends light rays and focuses on retina Retina: Light rays focused into an image on the retina- back of eye Focusing Light Sensation (Ch. 4) Check out your book and this sweet sweet website for more info! http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/bigeye.html Question Warren is able to see his watch clearly to check the time because his lens changes shape to focus the light onto the fovea through a process called _____________. A. B. C. D. Accommodation Acuity Adaption Transduction Question When Karyan noticed an engagement ring on her friend’s hand she brought the ring closer to her eyes and to the very center of her visual field to examine it. Why? A. B. C. D. Visual acuity is highest in the periphery of the eye, Which is rich in rods. She wanted to decrease the lateral inhibition in the ganglia. Visual acuity is highest in the fovea of the eye, which is rich in cones. She wanted to increase the lateral inhibition in the ganglia Forgetting: Decay and Inference Memory (Ch. 7) Decay: gradual disappearance of mental representation of stimulus info fades until completely out of memory Interference: either storage or retrieval of info is impaired by presence of other info. Retroactive interference: new info interferes with old (old is what you can’t remember) Proactive interference: old info interferes with new (new is what you can’t remember) Question As Ophelia was filling out a loan application she could easily recall her current address, but she could not remember her previous address even though she had lived there for four years. Ophelia was likely experiencing _______________, which occurs when forming a new memory and makes it harder to recall a previous memory. A. B. C. D. Proactive interference Decay Retroactive interference Spreading activation Signaling of Significant Events Learning (Ch. 6) Timing Forward Conditioning: Present NS then UCS afterwards (example presenting the bell then the steak to the dog) Backward Conditioning: UCS then NS (Present food then bell) Simultaneous conditioning: having UCS and NS presented at the same time Signaling of Significant Events Learning (Ch. 6) Predictability- Conditioned stimulus ALWAYS signals unconditioned stimulus and only the unconditioned stimulus Bell rings Class dismissed Signal strength- Stronger unconditioned stimulus the better (intense stimuli = good attention grabbers) (Quiet bell verses loud bell) Attention: Several stimuli present Most closely attended to = most associated with UCS Signaling of Significant Events Learning (Ch. 6) Second-order conditioning: Conditioned stimulus acts like an unconditioned stimulus Check out the example in your book, Page 201 Biopreparedness: Natural tendency for certain events to become linked Conditioned taste aversion Eating something and getting sick….now you can’t eat it again or sometimes even look at it Question After many trials, the rats in Dr. Mitchell’s experiment learned that by pressing a bar in their cage after a red light flashed, they could avoid getting shocked. Dr. Mitchell decided to ring a buzzer directly before the red light flashed, and the rats eventually began to press the bar as soon as the buzzer rang. This is an example of __________. A. B. C. D. Biopreparedness Stimulus discrimination Second-order conditioning Extinction Constructing Memory Memory (Ch. 7) Levels-of-processing: how you encode it into your memory (deeper processing is better than shallow processing) Maintenance- repeating over and over (STM) Elaborative- relating info to info you already know (LTM) Transfer appropriate: retrieval matches first encoding Info-processing: info passing through sensory, STM/working, LTM *Parallel-distributed processing: neural networks and semantic activation; integrate with existing info Constructing Memories Memory (Ch. 7) Constructive Memory: use generalized knowledge about world to organize new info as we receive it Look over pages 253 – 255 in book (schemas, etc.) Eyewitness testimony: eyewitness can only remember what they perceive—leaving out different parts of the story (encode the general “gist”) Misinformation effect: Example “How fast were the cars going when they SMASHED into each other? pg. 256 Schedules of Reinforcement Learning (Ch 6) Continuous reinforcement scheduleReinforced every time Partial reinforcement schedule: (over a long time) only reinforced sometimes Schedules of Reinforcement Learning (Ch. 6) Fixed-ratio (FR): fixed # of responses Variable-ratio (VR): Varying # of responses Fixed-interval (FI): Fixed time Fixed amount of time has passed since last reward Example: Getting paid every 2 weeks Variable-interval (VI): Varying Time Pop Quiz Schedules of Reinforcement Learning (Ch. 6) Number of necessary responses Predictable Unpredictable (“on the average”) Time that must first past Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Types of Reinforcers Learning (Ch 6) Primary Reinforcers: Meets basic needs (example: food) Secondary Reinforcers: rewards that people/animals learn to like (example: “good girl” or money) Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination Learning (Ch. 6) Generalization: CR is elicited by stimuli that are SIMILAR but not identical to CS -Ex: If a child got scared by a small dog they also may be scared by a large rabbit because they are similar and are unable to tell the difference Discrimination: DIFFERENTIATE among similar stimuli and respond appropriately to each one The child would be able to tell the difference between the dog and a polar bear. It would throw a temper tantrum when it saw a dog but not a polar bear. Question Dr. Laura wanted to teach pigeons how to differentiate the colors red and green. The pigeons were rewarded with food when they pecked at a red circular disk but not when they pecked at a green circular disk. Eventually the pigeons learned to peck only at the red disk to receive a food reward. The pigeons were exhibiting __________. A. B. C. D. Stimulus Generalization Stimulus Discrimination Spontaneous Recovery Simultaneous Conditioning Operant vs. Classical Conditioning Learning (Ch. 6) Classical: Neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with stimulus that elicits a reflex (involuntary) response until neutral stimulus alone comes to elicit similar response (learned association between 2 events) Operant: Organism learns to respond (voluntary behaviors) to environment in way that produces positive (+) consequences and avoids negative (-) ones Depth Cues Perception (Ch. 5) Interposition: closer block farther away Relative Size: larger are closer Height in visual field: higher are distant Texture gradient: clearer are closer Linear perspective: convergence of II (railroad tracts) Check out pg. 166-167 for info on accommodation, motion parallax, convergence, and binocular disparity What depth cue is shown? LINEAR PERSPECTIVE Parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance. What depth cue is shown? Texture Gradient Textured surfaces, such as pebbles on a beach, or waves on the sea, look rougher closer up than from a distance. We use texture gradient as a clue to distance What depth cue is shown? Height in a Visual Field In this example the red boat looks as though it is nearer as it is lower in the plane than the green boat What depth cue is shown? Relative Size Larger objects are seen as closer. Development of Language Language (Ch. 8) Consult Pages 309- 317 in the text Linguistic determinism- language shapes thought Example: Snow. English language only has one word for snow; Eskimos may have multiple words for snow. So Whorf believed that Eskimos thought about snow differently. Also refer to the color example Framing Effect- language can affect reasoning, problem solving, and decision making; thinking influenced by words used to describe situation Example: Going to the grocery store. One box says “no added fat” and another says “15% fat”; they could easily mean the same thing. Development of Language Language (Ch. 8) First Year Babbling: patterns of meaningless sounds that resemble speech Second Year One-word stage: language begins to develop one word at a time This stage usually last about six months (ex: “Out”, “Eat”, etc) Telegraphic: Short (two word) sentences; no prepositions (in, on, out…) Use different tones for questions than demands Example: “give book” “go out?” (more examples in your book)