Download Planet Earth

Planet Earth
How old is the Earth?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
:10
140 million years
500 million years
1 billion years
4.6 billion years
13 billion years
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
0%
73
74
0%
75
76
0%
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111 1112
0 of 116
113 2114
115 3116
77 0%
78
790%80
97
99
98
4
100
5
The Early History
of the Earth
Earth formed 4.6 billion years
ago from the inner solar nebula.
Four main stages of evolution:
1.
2.
The mixing of substances.
Lighter substances sinking to
the bottom, while heavier
substances rise to the top.
Heavier substances sinking to
the bottom, while lighter
substances rise to the top.
The chemical change of
substances near the surface
of a planet due to chemical
reactions with the atmosphere.
The chemical change of
substances near the core of a
planet induced by great heat.
3.
4.
5.
What is
“differentiation”?
:10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
0%
74
0%75
76
78
0%
79
80
0%
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112 1113
0 of 116
114 2 115
0% 77
116 3
97
4
5
The Early History
of the Earth
Earth formed 4.6 billion years
ago from the inner solar nebula.
Four main stages of evolution:
Two sources of heat in Earth’s interior:
• Potential energy of infalling material
• Decay of radioactive material
Most traces of bombardment
(impact craters) now destroyed
by later geological activity
1.
Global climate change
caused by variations in
the sun’s energy output.
Global climate change
caused by a massive
meteorite/comet impact.
A reptile dysfunction.
A nearby stellar explosion
(supernova / gamma-ray
burst).
Nothing. They still exist
(see, e.g., Jurassic Park)!
2.
3.
4.
5.
What killed the dinosaurs
(according to the most
widely accepted theory)?
:10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
0%
93
0%
98
99
0%
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
0 of 116
113
1
940%95
0% 97
96
114
116
115
2
3
4
5
Meteorite Impacts on Earth
Over 150 impact craters found on Earth.
Most famous example:
Barringer Crater near Flagstaff, AZ:
Impact Craters on Earth
Barringer Crater: ~ 1.2 km diameter; 200 m deep
Formed ~ 50,000 years ago by a
meteorite of ~ 80 – 100 m diameter
Much larger impact features exist on Earth:
Impact of a large body (comet nucleus?) formed a
crater ~ 180 – 300 km in diameter in the Yucatán
peninsula, ~ 65 million years ago:
The Chicxulub Crater
This impact may have
caused major climate
change, leading to the
extinction of many
species, including
dinosaurs.
Earth’s Interior
Direct exploration of
Earth’s interior (e.g.
drilling) is impossible.
Earth quakes produce
seismic waves.
Earth’s interior can be
explored through
seismology:
Seismic waves are bent
or bounce off transitions
between different
materials or different
densities or
temperatures.
If you are standing next to railroad tracks and you don’t see
or hear a train, you can tell if there’s a train approaching by
putting your ear on the tracks. This works because …
1.
your visual abilities improves
when you block one of your ears.
sound waves travel more rapidly
along the tracks than through the
air.
Sound waves get less absorbed
when traveling along the tracks
than through the air.
All of the above.
2. and 3.
2.
3.
4.
5.
:10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
0%
93
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
0 of 116
1
94
114
0%
95
115
2
0%97
96
116
3
0%
98
4
99
80
0%
100
5
Earth’s Interior (II)
Basic structure:
Solid crust (light [Si-based] materials)
Solid mantle (light elements, iron-poor)
Liquid core (iron-rich)
Solid inner core (iron-rich)
Earth’s interior gets hotter towards the center.
Earth’s core is as hot as the sun’s surface;
metals are liquid near the core.
Earth’s Magnetic Field
Earth’s core consists
mostly of iron + nickel
(materials that
magnets are made
out of)
Convective motions
and rotation of the
core generate a
dipole magnetic field
The Role of Earth’s Magnetic Field
Earth’s magnetic field protects Earth from high-energy
particles coming from the sun (solar wind).
Surface of first
interaction of solar
wind with Earth’s
magnetic field =
Bow shock
Region where
Earth’s magnetic
field dominates =
magnetosphere
Some high-energy particles leak through the magnetic field and produce
a belt of high-energy particles around Earth: The Van Allen belts
Which phenomenon is caused by the
interaction of energetic particles from the
sun with Earth’s magnetosphere?
1.
:10
Northern lights (aurora
borealis).
Sun spots.
Prominences.
Hurricanes.
Earthquakes.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
0%
73
74
0%
75
76
0%
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111 1112
0 of 116
113 2114
115 3116
77 0%
78
790%80
97
99
98
4
100
5
The Aurora (Polar Light)
As high-energy particles leak into the lower magnetosphere, they
excite molecules near the Earth’s magnetic poles, causing the
Aurora
Tectonic Plates
Earth’s crust is composed of several distinct tectonic plates, which are
in constant motion with respect to each other → Plate tectonics
Tectonic Plates (II)
Evidence for plate tectonics can
be found on the ocean floor
… and in geologically active
regions all around the Pacific
Geological activity around the Pacific
Earthquakes:
Kobe (Japan)
Volcanism: Pinatubo
(Philippines)
Volcanism:
Mt. St. Helen
Earthquakes:
San Francisco
The major Tsunami of 2004 in the Indian Ocean was
caused by tectonic activity at the boundary between …
1)
:10
the African and the IndianAustralian Plates.
the Indian-Australian and
Eurasian Plates.
the African and the Arabian
Plates.
the Arabian and the IndianAustralian Plates.
the African and Antarctic
Plates.
2)
3)
4)
5)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
0 of 116
0%
112
1)
113
0%
114
2)
115
0%
116
3)
0%
4)
0%
5)
Plate Tectonics
Tectonic plates move with respect to each other.
Where plates move toward
each other, plates can be
pushed upward and downward
→ formation of mountain
ranges, some with volcanic
activity, earthquakes
Where plates move away
from each other, molten lava
can rise up from below →
volcanic activity
Active Zones Resulting from
Plate Tectonics
The interaction between the Pacific and the North
American Plates is responsible for the formation of
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
:10
the Hawaiian Islands.
the Alps.
the Rocky Mountains.
the Andes.
the Appalachian
Mountains.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
0 of 116
0%
1)
0%
2)
0%
3)
0%
4)
0%
5)
Volcanism on Earth (I)
Subduction Zones
Volcanism on Earth is commonly found along
subduction zones (e.g., Rocky Mountains).
Example: Stromboli (Sicily, Italy, 1998)
This type of volcanism is not found on Venus or Mars.
Hawaii is also very volcanically active. Is this also
because Hawaii is located at a plate boundary?
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Yes, it is located at the boundary
of the Pacific plate.
Yes, it is located at the boundary
of the North American plate.
Yes, it is located at the boundary
of the Eurasian plate.
No. This must be a different kind
of volcanic activity.
No. Hawaii is not volcanically
active.
:10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
0%
93
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
115
116
0 of 116
1)
94
114
0%
95
2)
0%97
96
3)
0% 99
98
4)
80
0%
100
5)
Volcanism on Earth (II)
Shield Volcanoes
Found above
hot spots:
Fluid magma
chamber, from
which lava erupts
repeatedly through
surface layers
above.
All volcanoes on Venus and Mars are shield volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes (II)
Tectonic plates moving over hot spots producing
shield volcanoes → Chains of volcanoes
Example: The
Hawaiian Islands
Earth’s Tectonic History
Earth’s Tectonic History (II)
History of Geological Activity
Surface formations visible today have emerged only
very recently compared to the age of Earth.
Guess: How thick is the Earth’s breathable
atmosphere (beyond which you would need oxygen
masks to breathe), compared to the Earth’s radius?
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
1/24,000 Earth radius.
1/800 Earth radius.
1/15 Earth radius.
1 Earth radius.
:10
10 Earth radii.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
0%
73
74
0%
75
76
0%
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111 1)112
0 of 116
113 2)114
115 3)116
77 0%
78
790%80
97
99
98
4)
100
5)
Earth’s Atmosphere
Only about
1/800 of the
Earth’s
radius!
Which is the most common gas
in Earth’s atmosphere?
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
:10
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Carbon dioxide
Methane
Water vapor
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
0%
73
74
0%
75
76
0%
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111 1)112
0 of 116
113 2)114
115 3)116
77 0%
78
790%80
97
99
98
4)
100
5)
The Atmosphere
Earth had a
primeval
atmosphere
from
remaining
gasses
captured
during
formation of
Earth
Do you think that the Earth’s atmosphere is still very
similar to what it was about 4 billion years ago?
1) Yes
2) No
:10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
0%54
55
56
57
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
1)
113
114
115
116
0 of 116
58
0%
2)
The Atmosphere
Earth had a
primeval
atmosphere
from
remaining
gasses
captured
during
formation of
Earth
Atmospheric composition severely altered (→ secondary
atmosphere) through a combination of several processes:
Sources of Atmospheric Gas
• Outgassing: Release of gasses bound in compounds in
the Earth’s interior through volcanic activity
• Later bombardment with icy meteoroids and comets
Loss of Atmospheric Gas
• Chemical reactions in the oceans
• Energetic radiation from space (in particular, UV)
:10
Which of these processes might be the main
reason that Mercury has almost no atmosphere?
1.
2.
Thermal Escape
Stripping by energetic
radiation from space
Condensation
Chemical reactions
Ejection by impacts
3.
4.
5.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
0 of 116
0%
1
0%
2
0%
0%
0%
116
3
4
5
Which of these forms of radiation from
space can reach the Earth unabsorbed?
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
:10
Radio waves.
Infrared light.
Ultraviolet light.
X-rays.
Gamma-rays.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
0%
73
74
0%
75
76
0%
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111 1)112
0 of 116
113 2)114
115 3)116
77 0%
78
790%80
97
99
98
4)
100
5)
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wavelength
Frequency
Need satellites
to observe
High
flying air
planes or
satellites
The Interactions between Light and Molecules
X-rays
1) Splitting up
molecules into atoms:
2) Ionizing (kicking electrons
out of) atoms or molecules
Nitrogen (N2) /
Oxygen (O2)
The Interactions between Light and Molecules
Ultraviolet
Splitting up molecules,
in particular, Ozone:
Ozone (O3)
Oxygen (O2)
Why is the totally eclipsed moon visible at all
(in a faint red glow)?
Because it is still glowing from the
1)
intense light it received during full moon
before the eclipse.
Because it is illuminated by sunlight
reflected off other terrestrial planets.
Because it is illuminated by sunlight
scattered within the Earth’s atmosphere.
Because it is very shy during the eclipse
and turns red when you are looking at it.
None of the above: The totally eclipsed
moon is completely black.
2)
3)
4)
5)
:10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
1130%114
115
0% 116
0%
0%
3)
4)
0 of 116
1)
2)
0%
5)
The Interactions between Light and Molecules
Visible Light
Penetrates through the
atmosphere mostly unabsorbed,
but can get scattered:
This is why the sun
appears red at
sunrise and sunset;
and why the sky is
blue (if it’s not cloudy)
The Interactions between Light and Molecules
Infrared
Causes asymmetric
molecules to rotate
This is the essential
step of the
Greenhouse Effect!
Carbon dioxide (CO2) /
Water vapor (H2O) /
any other asymmetric
molecules (greenhouse gases)
We know that UV and X-ray radiation from space is heating the
atmosphere. Thus, do you expect that the atmosphere becomes
hotter or colder with height, very high above the ground?
1)
2)
3)
:10
Hotter with increasing height.
No temperature change.
Colder with increasing height.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
0%74
73
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
1)
75
0%
76
94
95
96
114
115
116
2)
77
0%79
78
97
98
99
3)
80
100
The Temperature Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere
Exosphere: Heated
by UV and X-rays
from space
Thermosphere:
Heated by X-rays
from space
Altitude
Top of Ozone Layer
Ozone Layer
Stratosphere:
Heated by UV
radiation from space
Troposphere: Heated
by greenhouse effect
Temperature
Atmosphere gets colder at larger distance from heat sources.