Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
SOCIAL PERCEPTION Chapter 4 Social Perception • The study of how we form impressions of other people and make inferences about them Reading Other People: Non-Verbal Communication • Facial expressions • Body posture and movement • Tone of voice • Gestures • Touch • Eye contact Reading Other People: Basic Facial Expressions • Fear • Anger • Surprise • Sadness • Happiness • Disgust Inaccurate Decoding • Affect Blends • Cultural display rules • Hiding of emotions Implicit Personality Theories • The stereotype without a group. • Cultural • People who act like that also . . . Categorization (stereotyping) • Available information • Visual • Auditory • Stereotype availability • Known groups • Familiar groups • Motivation • Short-term • Long-term Explaining People’s Behavior: Attributing Motives • Internal attribution: any explanation that locates the cause as inside the person (personality) • External attribution: any explanation that locates the cause as outside the person (situation) Covariation Model Fundamental Attribution Error • Too much emphasis on personal motivation • Too little consideration of the situation • Perceptual Salience • Two-step Process. • East vs. West • Analytic vs. Holistic thinking Other tendencies • Self-serving attributions • Just-world hypothesis • Blaming the victim • Bias blind spot Inferring Cause & Effect in the Social World • Fritz Heider (Gestalt) 1958 common-sense psychology • Rules that govern the organization of physical, visual sensations also govern impressions of people in social situations • Important factors are the locus of causality: internal vs. external • And the stability of internal causality • These affect the impression of the actor and his/her probable future behavior. • Entity theorists believe that the attribute is a fixed (unchangeable) trait. • Incremental theorists believe that the trait is malleable (changeable) Inferring Cause & Effect in the Social World • If the trait is fixed, you make negative, stable attributions and eschew opportunities for change. (fixed mindset) • If the trait is malleable, you set goals and persist after failures. (growth mindset) • A well-known example is Carol Dweck’s analysis of the correction of poor student performance. Thinking about People • We rely on memory. How long do we remember? • Remembering is how we learn from past experience. • Short-term memory is encoded • Long-term memory is consolidated • Most memory is automatic • Reasons we don’t remember include: • Encoding failure • Retrieval failure • Interference, decay, motivation The Computers’ Information-Processing System Has Been a Useful Model for Human Memory • According to the information-processing model of memory, there are three basic processes that information goes through: • Encoding process: incoming information is organized and transformed so it can be entered into memory • Storage process: involves entering and maintaining information in memory for a period of time • Retrieval process: involves recovering stored information from memory so it can be used Memory as Information-Processing • In the encoding process, information from our surroundings is transformed into neural language through: • Visual encoding: Information is represented in memory as a picture. • Acoustic encoding: Information is represented in memory as a sequence of sounds. • Semantic encoding: Information is represented in memory by its meaning to you. • The type of encoding used—visual, acoustic, or semantic—can influence what is remembered. The Atkinson-Schiffrin Model • Three memory systems or stages • Sensory memory: a memory system that very briefly stores the sensory characteristics of a stimulus • Short-term memory: a limited-capacity memory system where we actively “work” with information • Long-term memory: a durable memory system that has an immense capacity for information storage Overview of the Information-Processing Model of Memory Sensory Memory • • • Sensory memory serves as a holding area, storing information just long enough for us to select items for attention. Information not transferred to short-term memory is quickly replaced by incoming stimuli and lost. Sensory memory consists of separate memory subsystems: • • Iconic memory: Visual sensory memory is the fleeting memory of an image, or icon. Echoic memory: Auditory sensory memory is often experienced like an echo. Figure 21.1 Atkinson-Shiffrin’s three-stage processing model of memory Myers: Exploring Psychology, Sixth Edition in Modules Copyright © 2005 by Worth Publishers Short-Term Memory: a “Working Memory” System • Short-term memory: the memory area where we actively “work” with information • Referred to as working memory and has three basic components: • • • Phonological loop: temporarily stores auditory input Visuospatial sketchpad: temporarily stores visual and spatial images Central executive: supervises and coordinates the other two components Encoding Strategy 1: Organization • Chunking • organizing into familiar, manageable units • 1776149218121941 • use of acronyms • HOMES-Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior Encoding Strategy 2: Meaning Ebbinghaus – learning meaningful information requires only 1/10 the effort of learning nonsense information. Encoding into Long-Term Memory • Elaborative rehearsal: rehearsal that involves thinking about how new information relates to information already stored in long-term memory; involves semantic encoding • Semantic encoding • Ignoring details and instead encoding the general underlying meaning of information Encoding Strategy 3: Imagery - mental pictures - a powerful aid to effortful processing, “piggybacks” on automatic processing Mnemonics - memory aids • especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices • Method of loci, stories, peg-words Long-Term Memory Stores Different Types of Information • • Semantic memory: more general in nature • • Explicit /Declarative General knowledge about the world Episodic memory: factual information acquired at a specific time and place • Events in own life—autobiographical memories Long-Term Memory Stores Different Types of Information • • Procedural memory: retains information of how to perform skilled motor activities • • Implicit/Non-Declarative Habits, activities so well-learned that we carry them out automatically. Results of conditioning Long-Term Memories Can Be Explicit or Implicit • Explicit memory: the conscious recollection of previous experiences • • Also referred to as declarative memory Episodic and semantic memories are explicit memories. Long-Term Memories Can Be Explicit or Implicit • Implicit memory: information that influences our thoughts and actions without conscious recollection Long-Term Memory Subsystems Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Semantic Facts-general knowledge Episodic Personally experienced events Implicit (nondeclarative) Without conscious recall Skills-motor and cognitive Dispositionsclassical and operant conditioning effects Long-Term Memory Organization: Schemas • Semantic networks are less helpful in explaining how information is clustered into coherent wholes, called schemas. • People are more likely to remember things that can be incorporated into existing schemas than things that cannot. Information in Long-Term Memory Can Be Organized around Schemas • Participants given a schema in which to understand a story recalled twice as many ideas. • Further studies—schemas help us remember and organize details and speed up processing time. • Cross-cultural research indicates that cultural utility plays an important role in what kind of schemas develop and, thus, what is remembered. Memory is Reconstructed during Retrieval • Memory is stored in a distributed fashion It may be fragmented • Schema consistency is important • Schema-consistent information is remembered more easily. • Schemas serve as frameworks for initial memory storage. Reconstruction of Memory • Elizabeth Loftus • What a person usually recalls is not a replica, but a reconstruction of the event • A reconstruction is an account which is pieced together from a few highlights, using information which may or may not be accurate. Memories Are Reconstructions of the Past • The scientific belief in the reconstructive nature of memory was first proposed in the 1930s by Sir Frederic Bartlett. • By testing people’s memories of stories they had read, Bartlett found that accurate recollections were rare. • Errors increased over time. Memories Are Often Sketchy Reconstructions of the Past • Bartlett concluded that – The parts that participants were most confident of remembering were often those that they had created. People systematically distort details (facts and circumstances). People are largely unaware they have reconstructed the past, and Information already stored in memory strongly influences how new information will be remembered. Conditions that Bias Memory • Present experience • Mood congruence (rosy recollection bias) • Cultural difference (holistic vs. analytic) • Misinformation effects • Bugs Bunny study • Elizabeth Loftus experiments • Father Pagano Repressed/Recovered Memories ofChild Abuse • Can we repress memories? • Are they still there? • Can we recover old memories? • How accurate are they if we do? • Are there alternate explanations for this phenomenon? • Possible motives? • Blaming someone else • Revenge • Money - attorney Two Types or Theories of Motivated Forgetting Suppression occurs when a person consciously tries to forget something. Repression occurs when a person unconsciously pushes unpleasant memories out of conscious awareness. These memories continue to unconsciously influence the person’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Can people repress & later recover memories? • Many memory researchers believe: • It is naive to assume that people can accurately recover memories that were previously unconsciously repressed • People can unknowingly manufacture false memories. • False memories can be implanted into the minds of both children and adults. Can people repress & later recover memories? Many psychologists believe that memories “recovered” in therapy are actually false or pseudo memories. Many research participants who are instructed to imagine that a fictitious event happened later develop a false memory of the fictitious event. False childhood memories can be experimentally induced. Can people repress & later recover memories? Garry & Loftus implanted a false memory of being lost in a shopping mall at age 5 in 25% of their research participants (aged 18-53) after verification of the experience by a relative. “Memories” from the first years of life are very suspect. Psychologists believe that the brain in insufficiently developed to create or sustain a long-term (until older childhood or adulthood) memory in a child under age three. Repressed & Recovered Memories? • Simply repeating imaginary events to people causes them to become more confident that they actually experienced these events. • Certain techniques used in therapy to recover childhood memories of abuse (hypnosis and dream interpretation) can distort patients’ recollections of past events and create false memories of abuse. Repressed Memories Controversy • Current evidence supports the possibility of repressed memories and also the construction of false memories in response to suggestions of others. • American Psychological Association, American Psychiatric Association, • American Medical Association Availability Heuristic • Ease of retrieval effect • May be frequency of experience • May be frequency of remembering • May be another motivation (e.g., desire for closure)