Download Chapter 10: Human Development

Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Chapter 10
Human Development
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Human Development

Developmental Psychology

The goal of developmental psychology is to understand
all the factors that influence human development from
conception to death.

Developmental psychologists have made much progress
by devising increasingly careful and sensitive ways to
measure behavioral abilities.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Module 10.1

Getting Started: From Genetics Through Infancy
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genes and Behavior



Monozygotic, or identical, twins develop from a single
fertilized egg and have identical genes.
Dyzygotic, or fraternal, twins develop from two eggs and
share only half of their genes, like any other sibling set.
Studying sets of twins is a useful and informative way to
know more about the influence of genes on behavior.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genes and Behavior

From twin studies and other genetic research we know that
genetic factors have a substantial influence on many
aspects of psychology. But we still don’t know exactly:
 How genes shape mental processes and behavior
 How much influence genes actually have
 Which aspects of the environment are most important in
influencing psychological processes
How do genes and environment work together to shape
mental processes and behavior?
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Chromosomes
 Most animal and plant cells contain a nucleus with
hereditary material – instructions in the form of strands
called chromosomes.
 Humans have 46 chromosomes – 23 pairs – in every
body cell except for the sex cells. Sperm and ova each
contain 23 unpaired chromosomes that unite at
conception.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Genes
 The genes that form the sections of the chromosomes
control the chemical reactions that direct an individual
organism’s development.
 Genes control protein production in order to produce
specific characteristics – a specific group of genes will
exert a large influence over height, weight, or eye color.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Figure 10.3 Genes are sections of chromosomes in the nuclei of cells
(scale is exaggerated for illustration purposes).
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Genes
 The genes that form the sections of the chromosomes
control the chemical reactions that direct an individual
organism’s development.
 Genes control protein production in order to produce
specific characteristics – a specific group of genes will
exert a large influence over height, weight, or eye color.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Genes
 Genes are composed of DNA, special chemicals that
control the production of RNA. RNA in turn controls the
production of proteins.
 The proteins either become part of the individual’s body,
or control the rate of chemical reactions in the body.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Genes
 Cells that contained paired chromosomes also contain
paired genes.
 If both genes of a pair are identical, the individual has
received a homozygous pair.
 If the genes are different, the individual is heterozygous
for that trait.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Genes
 If an individual receives one gene for wavy hair and
another for straight hair, that individual’s hair will be
straight.
 The gene for wavy hair is a dominant gene. It is
referred to as dominant because it will exert its effects
even if the inheriting individual is heterozygous for the
gene.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Genes
 A recessive gene will only show its effects in the
homozygous condition. You must receive a gene for blue
eyes from both parents in order to develop blue eyes.
 The gene for blue eye color is a recessive gene.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Genes
 An individual who is homozygous for a trait will always
pass the dominant gene on to any offspring.
 An individual who is heterozygous for a trait may pass
either the dominant or recessive gene on to the next
generation.
 It is possible for parents who are heterozygous for a
dominant trait to each pass a recessive gene to their
child, who will then be homozygous for the recessive
trait.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Concept Check:
If you are wavy-haired but your brother has straight hair, are
you homozygous or heterozygous for that trait, or is it
impossible to say without looking at your genes?
It is impossible to say without genetic testing.
You could be homozygous or heterozygous dominant.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Concept Check:
What about your brother? What type of gene pair did he
inherit?
Your brother must be homozygous recessive.
Recessive genes only exert influence in the homozygous
condition.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Concept Check:
If both parents have blue eyes, what can we predict about
their children?
Their children will have blue eyes too.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Sex-linked genes
 The sex chromosomes determine whether an individual
will become a male or female.
 There are two types of sex chromosomes, called X and
Y.
 Females receive an X from each parent; males receive
an X from mother and a Y from father.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Sex-linked genes
 Genes that are on the X-chromosome are called sexlinked genes.
 The influence of these genes is seen more often in men
than in women.
 An example of such a trait is the disease hemophilia.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Figure 10.7 Why males are more likely than females to be colorblind.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Sex-linked genes
 A man may have the gene on his X-chromosome. There
is no gene on the Y, and so the trait manifests.
 A woman is much more likely to receive the dominant
gene for normal blood clotting on one of her Xchromosomes, and not have hemophilia.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Sex-linked versus sex-limited genes
 Genes for the secondary sex characteristics (facial hair
in men, breast development in women) are present in
both sexes, but are activated by the presence of sex
hormones.
 These are called sex-limited genes.
 Behavior differences between the sexes (such as the
tendency for males to be more aggressive) are thought
to be influenced by sex-limited genes.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Concept Check:
A man who is colorblind marries a woman who is
homozygous dominant for normal color vision. What is the
likely outcome for any children they might have?
None of their children will be colorblind.
The daughters of the union will be carriers of the condition.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Genetic screening
 Genetic diseases have been of great concern.
Technology now allows us to identify and localize genes
that cause such diseases.
 Some examples of these are:
 Alzheimer’s Disease
 Huntington’s Disease
 PKU
 There are many others
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Genetic screening
 Our ability to do this has led to some interesting ethical
questions:
 How does knowing this affect an individual’s behavior
(choice to have children, for example)?
 Should health insurers be able to know what a person’s
genetic make-up is? Would these companies deny
coverage based on such knowledge?
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Heritability
 Some traits are easily traced to a single gene.
 An example of such a trait is Huntington’s Disease.
There are many others.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Heritability
 But even traits traced to a single gene may be strongly
environmentally influenced.
 An example of this kind of gene is PKU. PKU causes
profound mental retardation, but only if the affected
person’s diet includes foods containing a certain
enzyme.
 If the person with the PKU gene is kept on a strict diet
for the first two decades of life, he will have normal
intelligence.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Heritability
 Many characteristics and conditions of interest to
psychologists cannot be traced to a single gene.
 Mental processes and behaviors develop through
complex interactions of the influences of genes and
environment.
 In the case of traits such as addiction, personality
characteristics, and intelligence, it is meaningless to ask
if the trait depends solely on heredity or environment.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Heritability
 The concept of heritability helps us to rephrase the
question to make it more useful.
 Does a difference in behavior or outcome depend more
on differences in genetic make-up or differences in
environment?
 Heritability is an estimate of the variance in a population
that is due solely to heredity. If we could somehow make
the environment the same for all individuals, the
differences we would see would then be attributable to
genetic differences.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Heritability
 Heritability is measured from 0 to 1.
 0 means that almost none of the variance in the trait in
due to heredity – what religion a person practices has no
basis in heredity.
 1 signifies that variance in the trait is due entirely to
heredity. If you have Huntington’s Disease or not will
depend solely on whether you get the gene.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Heritability
 Many researchers have worked on the problem of
heritability.
 It is difficult to know the exact degree of genetic
influence because:
 The environment can start to impact an individual
right from conception (a mother’s lifestyle and
nutrition affect the growing fetus).
 Environments are hard to “standardize” or make
identical (except in the laboratory, perhaps).
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles

Heritability
 Evidence suggests that genetic factors contribute to
variations in almost all behaviors and processes of
interest to psychologists.
 But there are good reasons to suspect an overestimation
of heritability in many psychological studies because of
the difficulties involved in studying humans in their
diverse environments.
 We need more evidence before we can confidently
describe the role of heredity in forming human potential
and personality.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Genetic Principles



Heritability
Some behaviors that have been shown to have a moderate
degree of heritability:
 Time spent watching TV
 Religious devoutness
 Dietary preferences
These differences can be traced to biological factors that
genes influence (activity levels, digestive chemistry).
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Heredity and the Environment


People believe that if a trait is found to be primarily
genetically influenced (heritability = 1) nothing can be done
to counteract its effects.
But the example of PKU, described earlier shows that a trait
can be entirely under the influence of heredity, and yet also
be easily influenced and altered by human intervention.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Fetus and the Newborn

Prenatal Development
 The growth and changes that occur before birth are
referred to as prenatal development. There are
identifiable stages of this period of life.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Fetus and the Newborn

Prenatal development

Zygote
Fertilized egg cell

Blastula

Gastrula

Embryo
2 to 8 weeks after conception

Fetus
8 weeks after conception until birth
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Fetus and the Newborn

Prenatal development
 Prenatal brain development
 By seven weeks the hindbrain and midbrain are
developed enough to produce movements.
 By 36 weeks those brain structures produce head
and eye movements in response to sounds, a sleepwake cycle, and REM sleep.
 The cerebral cortex is relatively inactive during this
period.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Fetus and the Newborn

Prenatal development
 The maternal-fetal connection
 Everything that mother consumes reaches the baby
through the placenta.
 If mother’s nutrition and prenatal care are poor or
deficient, baby will also be deprived.
 If mother drinks, uses drugs, or smokes, baby will
receive these substances, often with serious
consequences.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Fetus and the Newborn

Prenatal development
 Low-birth weight and premature infants
 Small and premature babies have a higher risk of
dying in infancy.
 They are more likely to have impaired brain
development.
 Those who survive infancy are at higher risk of
behavioral and academic problems during childhood.
 Low birth weight may or may not be the cause of
these impairments, but it definitely correlates with
whatever factors do cause them, if it is not in fact the
direct cause.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Fetus and the Newborn

Prenatal development
 Fetal alcohol syndrome
 If mother drinks alcohol during pregnancy, the baby is
likely to be born with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS).
 FAS is characterized by stunted growth of the head
and body, facial, cranial and ear malformations,
neurological damage, learning disabilities and mental
retardation.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Fetus and the Newborn

Prenatal development
 A milder version, called fetal alcohol effects (FAE), has
also been noted.
 A child with FAE appears normal but has impaired
academic skills and mild behavioral problems.
 The more alcohol mother drinks, and the longer she
continues drinking, the greater the risk to the developing
baby.
 There is no “safe” level of alcohol consumption during
pregnancy.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Fetus and the Newborn

Prenatal development
 During prenatal development, growing neurons need
persistent excitation to survive.
 Alcohol facilitates GABA, the main inhibitory
neurotransmitter of the brain.
 This leads the neurons to “self-destruct”.
 Any chemicals that increase activity at inhibitory
synapses, such as tranquilizers, anesthetics, and antidepressants, should be avoided.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Fetus and the Newborn

Prenatal development
 Maternal smoking
 Mother’s smoking also increases the probability that
her baby will have health problems.
 Smoking (before and after birth) has been associated
with an increased risk of SIDS.
 Conduct disorder has been found to correlate with
mother’s smoking during pregnancy more strongly
than with father’s antisocial behavior, SES, lack of
supervision, or use of harsh punishment by the
parents.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Fetus and the Newborn

Prenatal Development
 To maximize the chance of having a healthy baby with
an undamaged brain, a pregnant woman should avoid
using alcohol, tobacco and other recreational drugs,
follow a nutritious diet, receive regular prenatal care, and
consult with her health care provider before using any
prescription or over-the counter medication.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Concept Check:
Why should a pregnant woman who is being treated for
depression with medication stop taking her anti-depressant
drugs?
They are likely to cause damage to the developing fetus’ brain by
increasing activity at inhibitory synapses.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Behavioral Capacities of the Newborn

Newborns have little muscle control, and exhibit the
greatest purposeful movement with their eyes and mouths.

Development proceeds from the head down and from the
midline out, and so gradually babies can move their trunks,
limbs and fingers.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Behavioral Capacities of the Newborn

Newborns’ vision
 Newborns have far from perfect vision, but see far better
than was believed just a few generations ago
 2-day-infants prefer to look at drawings of human
faces.
 Infants direct their gaze at the same things that attract
adult attention.
 As infants gain voluntary control of their arms and
legs, and begin to crawl, a fear of heights develops
that is almost certainly related to improved depth
perception.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Figure 10.12 Infants pay more attention to faces than to other patterns. These results
suggest that infants are born with certain visual preferences. (Based on Fantz, 1963)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Behavioral Capacities of the Newborn

Newborns’ vision
 Visual motor coordination develops quickly but must be
practiced to continue being improved.
 Experiments with kittens suggest that eye movements
must be allowed to coordinate with body movements for
further development of all visually guided behavior.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Behavioral Capacities of the Newborn

Newborns’ hearing
 In general, infants suck more vigorously when they hear
sounds that they find stimulating.
 Some sounds (such as the human voice) are more
stimulating than others.
 Most sounds eventually produce a decreased
response as the infant becomes habituated to them.
 Playing new sounds for an infant will increase
responding, and may even result in a dishabituation,
or increased responding to previously habituated
sounds.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Behavioral Capacities of the Newborn

Newborns’ learning and memory
 Infants as young as one month old can discriminate
between phonemes.
 Infants show a marked preference for their mother’s
voice over another woman’s voice.
 They showed this preference on the day of their birth,
suggesting that they have some memory of her voice
from before birth.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Figure 10.13 After 5 minutes of hearing a ba sound, the infant’s sucking habituates.
When a new sound, pa, follows, the sucking rate increases, an indication that
infants do hear a difference between the two sounds. (Based on results of Eimas,
Siqueland, Juscyk, & Vigorito, 1971)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Behavioral Capacities of the Newborn

Newborns’ learning and memory
 Older infants (2-3 months old) show ability to learn
responses and remember them for days afterwards,
such as kicking their legs to make a mobile move.
 Nine month olds can learn to press a lever to move a toy
train around a track, and can retain this memory for a
fairly long time.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Behavioral Capacities of the Newborn

Newborns’ learning and memory
 It is not clear if Piaget’s inference is accurate. Infants
who are tested differently show signs of having a notion
of object permanence earlier than Piaget believed was
possible.
 Infants seem to have a grasp of physical laws and can
distinguish possible from impossible events (at least
their reactions seem to indicate that they do.)
 They may also have a grasp of simple numerical
concepts.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Newborns and Young Infants

There has been a steady advance in our ability to test the
development and skills of very young human beings.

It is clear that much more is going on in their brains than
they can show us, and than we once thought.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Module 10.2

The Development of Thinking and Reasoning
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Research Designs for Studying Development

There are two types of research design used in studying
human development
 A cross-sectional study compares groups of
individuals of different ages simultaneously.
 A longitudinal study follows a single group of
individuals as they develop.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Table 10.1 Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Research Designs for Studying Development

Sources of bias in developmental research
 Selective attrition, or differential survival, is the
increased probability of some kinds of subjects dropping
out.
 Cohort effects are a form of bias created because
groups of contemporaries all have the same experience,
knowledge or behaviors.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Concept Check:
Follow-up of a 10-year-long study of a group of adults with
infant children who agreed to take parenting classes and job
training in exchange for public assistance until gaining
employment shows high overall levels of satisfaction.
What type of study is this?
Longitudinal study
What source of bias would be of great concern in this study?
Selective attrition
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Jean Piaget’s Views of Development


Piaget believed that the effect of any experience on a
person’s knowledge or thinking depended on the person’s
maturity combined with previous experiences.
He began his psychological career administering IQ tests,
but found that he was bored with this activity. He was,
however, fascinated by the incorrect answers that children
would give.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Jean Piaget’s Views of Development



Piaget came to believe that children think differently from
adults, both quantitatively and qualitatively.
He believed that children of different cognitive maturity
levels react to the same experience very differently.
Piaget used his own extensive observational studies of
children to support his conclusions.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

Piaget believed that a child constructs new mental
processes as he or she interacts with the environment.
 Behavior is based on schemata (singular - schema.)
 A schema is an organized way of interacting with objects
in the world.
 New schemata are added, and old schemata are
changed as the child matures.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

Adaptation of old schemata takes place through two
processes.
 Through assimilation, a person applies an old schema
to a new object.
 Through accommodation, a person modifies an old
schema to fit a new object.
 People in all stages switch back and forth between these
two strategies, but ultimately cognitive change is
accomplished through accommodation.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

The four stages of intellectual development
 Sensorimotor
Birth to 1 years of age
 Preoperational
1 to 7 years of age
 Concrete Operations 7 to 11 years of age
 Formal Operations
11 years of age and older
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

The sensorimotor stage
 Piaget called the first stage the sensorimotor stage
because at this early age behavior consists primarily of
simple motor responses to sensory stimuli.
 Examples of these would be the grasping and sucking
reflexes.
 Piaget believed that infants respond only to what they
see and hear, not what they remember or imagine.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

The sensorimotor stage
 Object Permanence
 Jean Piaget believed that infants lacked a concept of
object permanence during the early months of life.
 Object permanence is the idea that objects continue
to exist even when one cannot see them or otherwise
sense them.
 According to Piaget, an infant does not know that a
hidden object is still there until about 8-9 months of
age.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

The Sensorimotor stage
 Recent research by Baillergeon suggests that infants 6-8
months old who are tested differently from methods used
by Piaget do have a limited ability to understand object
permanence.
 Baillergeon’s research results suggest that infants can
differentiate between possible and physically impossible
events.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

The Sensorimotor stage
 As infants progress through the sensorimotor stage, they
seem to develop a concept of self.
 At about 1 year of age, they begin to show signs that
they recognize themselves.
 They also begin to show self-conscious emotions such
as embarrassment.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

The Preoperational stage
 Piaget called the second stage of cognitive development
the preoperational stage because the child lacks
operations.
 The term “operations” refers to reversible mental
processes.
 The lack of operations leads to errors in cognition such
as egocentric thinking – the child for example knows
that he has a brother, but doesn’t understand that he is
his brother’s brother.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

The Preoperational stage
 Another example of a concept that preoperational
children lack is conservation.
 The inability to conserve results in a failure to recognize
that changes in shape and arrangement do not always
signify changes in amount or number.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Difficulties of Inferring Children’s Concepts


There may be a fundamental weakness in the assumption
made by Piaget that a child either “has” or “lacks” a
concept.
Concepts develop gradually and may appear using some
methods of testing but not others.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Difficulties of Inferring Children’s Concepts

Distinguishing appearance from reality
 Do children in the early preoperational stage fail to
distinguish appearance from reality?
 It’s not entirely clear whether a child’s inability to do
so has more to do with lacking a concept or
inadequate language skills.
 For example children may seem to confuse a rock
and a sponge that looks like a rock, but when asked
to bring to an adult something to wipe up spilled
water, they have no problem identifying the sponge
as the correct object for that purpose.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Difficulties of Inferring Children’s Concepts

Understanding other people’s thoughts
 Are young children more cognitively egocentric than
adults are?
 What Piaget meant by this is that a child cannot
easily understand the perspectives of other people.
 Various experiments show that preschool aged
children make errors of thought that are typical of
egocentric thinking.
 However, adults can make the same mistakes
according to other studies.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Figure 10.21 A child sits in front of a screen covering four cups and watches as
one adult hides a surprise under one of the cups.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Figure 10.21 A child sits in front of a screen covering four cups and watches as
one adult hides a surprise under one of the cups.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Figure 10.21 Then that adult and another (who had not been present initially) point
to one of the cups to signal where the surprise is hidden. Many 4-year-olds
consistently follow the advice of the informed adult;3-year-olds do not.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Figure 10.22 If an experimenter hides a small toy in a small room and asks a child to
find a larger toy “in the same place” in the larger room, a 21/2-year-old searches
haphazardly. (a) However, the same child knows exactly where to look, if the
experimenter says this is the same room as before, except that a machine has
expanded it (b).
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Difficulties of Inferring Children’s Concepts

Symbolic thought
 Do children in the early preoperational stage lack an
ability to think symbolically?
 2 ½ year old children cannot use a model room as a
“map” when trying to locate a hidden toy in a regular
sized room.
 But when told that the toy was hidden in the model
room, and a special machine has “expanded” the
model to a full size room, the children have little
difficulty finding the hidden toy.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Concept Check:
Which is the clearest example of egocentric thinking?
1. An exceptionally wealthy man gives no money to charity.
2. A woman assumes that all her friends will want to see
the same movie that she does.
3. At student council meeting, a student takes credit for
someone else’s ideas.
#2 – selfishness (1) and dishonesty (3) are not the same as egocentrism.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Table 10.2 Typical tasks used to measure conservation
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

The Concrete Operations stage
 From about age 7 children begin to exhibit reversible
operations and seem to understand the conservation of
physical properties.
 According to Piaget, during the stage of concrete
operations children can perform mental operations on
concrete objects.
 They may, however, have trouble with abstract or
hypothetical ideas.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

The Formal Operations stage
 Formal Operations is Piaget’s term for the mental
processes used to deal with abstract, hypothetical
situations.
 These are processes that demand logical, deductive
reasoning and systematic planning.
 Piaget proposed that children reach this stage just
before adolescence (at about age 11.)
 Researchers have found that some people take longer to
reach formal operations, and some people never do.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Table 10.3 Summary of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Concept Check:
According to Piaget, in what stage would a child be if she
could remember where a hidden object is, but doesn’t realize
that she is her sister’s sister?
Preoperational
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Concept Check:
In which stage is a child who has grasping and sucking
reflexes but cannot remember where an object is that has
been covered for 15 seconds?
Sensorimotor
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Concept Check:
In which stage is a child who can think about concepts such
as infinity and time, and has no difficulty with conservation
and reversible operations?
Formal operations
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Concept Check:
In which stage is a child who can conserve mass and volume
and remember the location of hidden objects, but doesn’t
understand the concept of infinity?
Concrete operations
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

Are Piaget’s stages distinct?
 Piaget believed that the four stages of intellectual
development were discrete, and that each one
represented a major reorganization in cognitive
processes.
 More recently though researchers have shown that this
conclusion is not entirely warranted.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

Are Piaget’s stages distinct?
 Preoperational children can answer different versions of
the conservation tasks correctly.
 In general, the progression between the stages appears
to be gradual, so that the difference between stages may
not be one of either having the ability or not; it may
actually be that the younger child has the same ability
but only uses it for simple tasks.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Figure 10.24 (a) With the standard conservation-of-number task, preoperational
children answer that the lower row has more items. (b) With a simplified task, the
same children say that both rows have the same number of items.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

Implications for education: Piaget
 Children must discover certain concepts on their own.
 Children’s attention must be directed to key aspects of
concepts when they are ready to learn those concepts.
 The teacher needs to determine the child’s level of
functioning and then teach material appropriate to that
level.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

Implications for education: Vygotsky
 Lev Vygotsky was a Russian developmental
psychologist who thought that education needed to meet
children at their own level.
 He believed that the use of the symbolic system of
language allowed humans to influence others and
control our own behavior.
 Education needs to utilize this feature of language
and take into account the child’s level of cognitive
maturity.
 He proposed the existence of a zone of proximal
development, which is the distance between what a
child can do alone and what a child can do with
assistance from others.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
An Overview of Piaget’s Theory

Implications for education: Vygotsky
 Vygotsky proposed the existence of a zone of proximal
development, which is the distance between what a
child can do alone and what a child can do with
assistance from others.
 Instruction should occur within the zone, but appropriate
guidance should be given whenever possible to bring
the child to understanding of more sophisticated
concepts.
 He compared this process to scaffolding, temporary
supports used to construct a new building. These are
temporary supports for the child’s cognitive processes.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Concept Check:
Who would be more optimistic about the possibility of teaching
a 5-year-old to understand conservation of mass?
According to Vygotsky, conservation might lie within the child’s zone
of proximal development
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Development of Moral Reasoning

Children’s general powers of reasoning change across
childhood, and so does their reasoning about issues of right
and wrong.

There are a number of different psychological frameworks
to describe the changes in moral reasoning that occur over
the lifespan.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Development of Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg’s method of evaluating levels of moral reasoning
 Lawrence Kohlberg argued that moral reasoning
progresses through distinct stages.
 Young children tend to equate wrongness with
punishment.
 Young children also frequently fail to consider intent in
judging a deed.
 He proposed that people pass through a distinct
sequence of moral reasoning stages.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Development of Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg’s method of evaluating levels of moral reasoning
 Kohlberg believed that people start at a low level of
moral reasoning and progress through higher stages.
 He believed that these stages were roughly analogous to
Piaget’s stages, but the progress was slower.
 He measured the maturity of an individual’s moral
reasoning by evaluating the responses given to moral
dilemmas – problems that pit one moral value against
another.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Development of Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg’s method of evaluating levels of moral reasoning

Preconventional Morality

Conventional Morality

Postconventional Morality
1. Punishment & Obedience
2. Instrumental Relativism
3. Interpersonal Concordance
4. “Law & Order” Orientation
5. Social Contract Orientation
6. Universal Ethical Principles
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Development of Moral Reasoning

Kohlberg’s method of evaluating levels of moral reasoning
 Kohlberg assessed the level of moral reasoning using
the explanation for the decision offered, rather than the
decision itself.
 Few people are absolutely consistent in their moral
reasoning.
 Kohlberg believed that very few people actually reached
the highest stages.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
TABLE 10.4 Responses to one of Kohlberg’s moral dilemmas by people at six levels of moral reasoning. The
dilemma: Heinz’s wife was near death from cancer. A druggist had recently discovered a drug that might be able
to save her. The druggist was charging $2000 for the drug, which cost him $200 to make. Heinz could not afford
to pay for it, and he could borrow only $1000 from friends. He offered to pay the rest later. The druggist refused
to sell the drug for less than the full price paid in advance: “I discovered the drug, and I’m going to make money
from it.” Late that night, Heinz broke into the store to steal the drug for his wife. Did Heinz do the right thing?
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
TABLE 10.4 Responses to one of Kohlberg’s moral dilemmas by people at six levels of moral reasoning. The dilemma: Heinz’s
wife was near death from cancer. A druggist had recently discovered a drug that might be able to save her. The druggist was
charging $2000 for the drug, which cost him $200 to make. Heinz could not afford to pay for it, and he could borrow only $1000
from friends. He offered to pay the rest later. The druggist refused to sell the drug for less than the full price paid in advance: “I
discovered the drug, and I’m going to make money from it.” Late that night, Heinz broke into the store to steal the drug for his wife.
Did Heinz do the right thing?
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Figure 10.25 Learning to distinguish right from wrong is the development of moral
reasoning. Most younger adolescents give answers corresponding to Kohlberg’s
earlier moral stages. By age 16 most are at Kohlberg’s fourth and fifth stages.
(Based on Kohlberg, 1969)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Development of Moral Reasoning

Limitations of Kohlberg’s views
 Justice versus caring orientations
 Kohlberg based his system of reasoning on people’s
rights.
 Carol Gilligan proposed that some people might
reason based on what would help or hurt others, an
orientation of caring.
 Gilligan proposed that women focus more on caring
and men more on rights.
 Later research has shown the gender differences in
orientation to be small.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Development of Moral Reasoning

Limitations of Kohlberg’s views
 Gilligan’s stages of moral development
Stage
Basis
Preconventional
What is helpful or harmful to myself?
Conventional
What is helpful or harmful to others?
Postconventional
What is helpful or harmful to myself and
others?
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Table 10.5 Carol Gilligan’s stages of moral development
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Development of Moral Reasoning

Limitations of Kohlberg’s views
 How does moral reasoning relate to actual behavior?
 Knowing what is right and doing it are not the same
things.
 Kohlberg has been criticized for overestimating
people’s moral behavior.
 Kohlberg has been criticized for underestimating
people’s moral behavior.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Development of Moral Reasoning

Limitations of Kohlberg’s views
 People may describe how they would engage in higherlevel moral behavior, but actually behave in the manner
that is characteristic of a lower level, where there is a
more tangible benefit for them.
 Children may say that the reason not to do something is
because they’d get caught, but when ask if they’d do it if
there was no chance of getting caught, say they wouldn’t
anyway.
 Kohlberg’s theory does not generalize well across
cultures.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Developing Cognitive Abilities


Developing an understanding of the world is an enormous
challenge for children.
We should acknowledge that for us adults, understanding
the world, and for children, learning to understand it, are
daunting tasks.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Module 10.3

Social and Emotional Development
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Erikson’s Ages of Human Development


Erikson divided the human life span into eight ages, each
with its own social and emotional conflicts.
In this way he sought to provide a model of why people
behave the way they do, given the decisions that they are
facing according to age.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Erikson’s Ages of Human Development


When the conflict is resolved in a positive and constructive
manner, the person moves into the next stage in a
psychologically healthy state.
If the conflict is not resolved, the negative effects will most
likely carry over into future stages, and have a detrimental
effect on the challenges that are yet to be faced.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Erikson’s Ages of Human Development

Ages 0 - 1

The infant faces the issue –


“Is my social world predictable and supportive?”
The main conflict of infancy is basic trust versus basic mistrust.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Erikson’s Ages of Human Development

Ages 1 – 3

The toddler asks the question –


“Can I do things for myself or must I always rely on
others to help me?”
The main conflict of toddlerhood is autonomy versus shame
and doubt.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Erikson’s Ages of Human Development

Ages 3 – 6

The preschooler needs to figure out –


“Am I a good person or a bad person?”
The main conflict of the preschool aged child is initiative
versus guilt.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Erikson’s Ages of Human Development

Ages 6 – 12

In an expanding social world, the school-aged child
wants to know –


“Am I successful or am I worthless?”
The preadolescent faces the struggle with a sense of
industry versus inferiority.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Erikson’s Ages of Human Development

Adolescence

Teenagers begin to seek independence and seek the
answer to this fundamental question –


“Who am I?”
The adolescent needs to resolve the conflict between a
settled identity versus role confusion.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Erikson’s Ages of Human Development

Young Adulthood



Young adults come to terms with the importance of
companionship and connection –
“Shall I share my life with another person or live alone?”
The central conflict of early adulthood is that of intimacy
versus isolation.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Erikson’s Ages of Human Development

Middle age

In the middle of adulthood one wants to feel that they
have contributed to society in some meaningful way –


“Will I add anything of real value to the world as a
worker and a parent?”
The conflict of middle adulthood is the desire to achieve
generativity versus stagnation.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Erikson’s Ages of Human Development

Old age

The reality that time is growing short forces people to
face a final and profound question –


“Have I lived a full and meaningful life, or have I
squandered my time?”
As older adults we struggle to determine whether we have
arrived at a stage of ego integrity versus despair.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Table 10.6 Erikson’s stages of human development
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Infancy and Childhood

Attachment theory
 Attachment is a long-term feeling of closeness between
a child and a caregiver
 Before the mid-twentieth century, developmental
psychologists believed that feeding was the primary
cause of attachment between mother and child.
 In the latter part of the century, John Bowlby (1973)
and other developmental psychologists theorized that
infants who develop a good sense of attachment to
adults who care for them have a better sense of
safety and confidence as they start to explore the
world around them.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Infancy and Childhood

Early attachment in humans
 Some researchers wanted to know why the quality of
attachment between human children and their parents
seemed to vary so much in quality.
 Mary Ainsworth devised a test called the Strange
Situation to examine what factors might contribute to
this variation.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Infancy and Childhood

Early attachment in humans
 In the Strange Situation study, the following sequence of
events was observed through a one-way mirror:
 A mother and infant (12 to 18 months of age) enter a
room with toys in it.
 A stranger enters the room.
 Mother leaves the room.
 Mother returns to the room.
 Mother and the stranger leave the room.
 The stranger returns to the room.
 Mother returns to the room again.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Infancy and Childhood

Early attachment in humans
 The psychologists who observed the Strange Situation
classified the infants’ responses as follows:
 Securely attached
 Anxious or insecurely attached
 Anxious and avoidant
 Disorganized
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Infancy and Childhood

Early attachment in humans
 Uses of the Strange Situation:
 Has been used with fathers as well as mothers and
children
 Predicts the quality of the child’s future relationship
with parents
 Has also been used with grandparents and
grandchildren, and even pets and their humans
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Infancy and Childhood

Early attachment in humans
 Factors to consider when interpreting the results of the
Strange Situation study:
 Parental behavior does have an effect on attachment.
 The effect of parenting on the child’s innate
temperament also needs to be considered.
 A child who is born with a pleasant and calm
temperament may elicit more affectionate behaviors
from a parent than a less predictable and fussier
infant.
 The study may have limited applicability across
cultures.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Infancy and Childhood

Social development in childhood
 The quality of a child’s friendships appears to be of
crucial importance during middle childhood
 Some children are popular and have little trouble
making friends and gaining admirers.
 Some children are rejected, outcast and avoided by
most other children.
 Controversial children are accepted by some peers
and rejected by others.
 In most cases, these statuses remain consistent from
year to year.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adolescence

Over the course of the twentieth century, adolescence in
our society has lengthened.
 It is generally recognized to begin at puberty, the onset
of changes that result in sexual maturity.
 The end of adolescence is harder to discern.
 It was customary through most of the last century to
characterize adolescence as a period of “storm and
stress.”
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adolescence



The turbulence of adolescence is seen in moodiness,
conflict with parents, and tendency to risky behavior.
These trends may reflect hormonal fluctuations and brain
maturation, but may also be culturally influenced.
There are many cultures in which there is no adolescence.
Teenagers are married and working.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adolescence



The secular trend of earlier puberty and a societal
movement toward a lengthened education and
postponement of marriage have influenced the American
experience of adolescence.
There is a tendency in this society to stereotype
adolescents.
Most adolescents are stable, relatively happy and complete
this period to become well-adjusted adults.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adolescence

Identity development
 Adolescence is the time of “finding oneself.”
 Western society offers many choices to teenagers.
 This is invigorating and yet also can cause anxiety.
 An adolescent’s concern about the future and
achieving self-understanding has been referred to as
the identity crisis.
 The crisis may or may not be so turbulent, depending
on the adolescent.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adolescence

Identity development
 James Marcia developed a set of identity statuses based
on two major elements of identity development.
 Whether or not one is actively exploring the issues of
identity development – “crisis”
 Whether or not one has made any decisions –
“commitment”
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adolescence

Identity development
 Those who have not given decisions any real thought
and have no clear sense of identity are in identity
diffusion.
 Those who have made firm decisions without giving
them much thought are said to be in foreclosure.
 Those who are seriously considering issues but have not
made any decisions are in a state of moratorium.
 Those who have explored the possibilities and made
their own decisions are called identity achieved.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adolescence

Identity development
 Marcia’s statuses are useful for thinking about the
important dimensions of finding a stable identity.
 It is possible that identity achievement does not happen
“all at once.”
 One may settle on a career well before finding a
committed relationship.
 It is also possible or even common to rethink decisions
later in life.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adolescence

The “Personal Fable”
 According to David Elkind, teenagers are particularly
prone to harbor beliefs such as:
“I am special – what is true for others is not true for
me.”
 “It won’t happen to me!”
 “Nobody understands how I feel.”
 “Everyone cares about how I look and what I am
wearing.” – also known as the “imaginary audience.”


These beliefs may be adaptive in some situations, but
can also lead to risk-taking behavior and feelings of
alienation from parents and peers.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adulthood

The beginning of young adulthood is marked by
commitments in the areas of career, relationships and
lifestyle.

The quality of the period known as middle age is influenced
in part by the outcome of these early adult decisions.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adulthood

The midlife transition
 The “midlife crisis” is a dramatic expression for the
reassessment of personal goals that many people
experience.
 A more low-key and accurate term is midlife
transition.
 Some abandon unrealistic goals set in youth and set
new goals that fit with their current lives.
 Others try to fulfill some of those early life dreams, or
set new ones.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adulthood

Old age
 Despite the stereotypes we hold, old age is not a uniform
experience for humans.
 Some people do deteriorate rapidly, either physically
or intellectually.
 Others remain active and alert into their 80s and well
beyond.
 In general, the elderly in our society have been
experiencing improved health, activity and intellect.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adulthood

Old age
 A commonly voiced concern is how to maintain a sense
of dignity and self-esteem
 The course of youth and middle age influences this
sense.
 The amount of regret about how that time was used
also has an effect.
 Cultural attitudes towards aging are also important.
 The more a culture values its elders, the easier it will
be to maintain a sense of dignity.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adulthood

Old age
 Elderly people generally differ from younger people in
some of their social habits.
 They will more frequently seek the company of familiar
people.
 The elderly will often try to retain some control over their
lives, even when faced with failing health.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Adulthood

The psychology of facing death
 Death can occur at any age, but we usually associate it
with the later years of life.
 The way we deal with death is in part determined by
our culture and is also constantly evolving.
 Terror-management theory states that we cope with
our deep fear of death by actively avoiding the
thoughts of it and maintaining an optimistic and
hopeful world-view.
 In general, even being casually reminded of mortality
increases people’s defense of their belief system,
whatever that may be.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Social and Emotional Developmental Issues


The things that you do at an earlier age no doubt have
some effect on your later life.
You can change your life at any age, but the earlier you
decide what is important to you and how you want to spend
your limited time, the easier it will be to live your life in a
satisfying and meaningful way.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Module 10.4
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Temperament, Family, Gender and Cultural Influences on
Development
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Temperament and Lifelong Development

Temperament is a person’s tendency to be active or
inactive, outgoing or reserved.
 Research suggests that temperament is stable over
much of the lifespan.
 Kagan and his associates were able to strongly relate
infant temperament to later levels of sociability.
 Genetic influences make contributions to temperament,
although environment is also a factor.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Family
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Research has not shown any reliable connection between
birth order and personality or other qualities.
The fact that older and younger children may behave in
certain ways in the home is probably specific to that
situation.
Family size does appear to have some influence on
children’s IQ scores, with smaller families showing higher
IQ scores than larger ones.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Figure 10.27 Children from small families tend to score higher on IQ tests than children from
large families. However, within a family of a given size, birth order is not related to IQ. If we
combine results for families of different sizes, first borns have a higher mean score, but only
because many of them come from small families. (Adapted from Rodgers et al., 2000)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Effects of Parenting Style

Diane Baumrind described four basic styles of parenting
based on the dimensions of warmth and control:
 Authoritative parents impose controls but show warmth
and encouragement to the child.
 Authoritarian parents impose control but tend to be
emotionally distant from the child.
 Permissive parents are warm but impose few limits.
 Uninvolved parents are distant and do little more than
provide resources.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Effects of Parenting Style
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Children of authoritative parents tend to be most self-reliant
and cooperative.
Children of authoritarian parents tend to be obedient but
also distrustful and not very independent.
Children of permissive parents are frequently socially
irresponsible.
Children of uninvolved parents tend to be impulsive and
hard to discipline.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Effects of Parenting Style
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Reasonably consistent links have been found between the
parenting styles and child behavior.
These results do not necessarily apply across ethnic
groups and cultures.
It is unclear if the parent’s behavior shapes the children’s
behavior; the children’s behavior shapes the parent’s, or if
both are true to some degree.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
The Effects of Parenting Style

The Nurture Assumption
 Studies of adopted children and their parents show little
correlation between parenting style and child behavior.
 Harris and other researchers believe that parenting style
really only influences child behavior at home.
 Parents exert influence mostly by controlling the
environment in which the child is being raised.
 Harris proposes that ultimately the peer group will be the
most influential shaping force upon the personality of the
child.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Parental Employment and Child Care

Although we tend to assume that western models are the
norm, child-rearing practices vary greatly between world
cultures
 Communal child rearing, use of paid help, and many
other variations exist from our traditional model of the
stay-at-home mother.
 In general, whether loving stay-at-home parents rear
children or children receive high quality day care for part
of the day, child development proceeds normally.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Nontraditional Families
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Some models of family life that are considered
“nontraditional” are:
 Single mothers
 Gay and lesbian couples raising children
 Mother as primary breadwinner while father stays at
home
Research indicates that what matters most is that the child
has a stable, emotional relationship with at least one adult.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Parental Conflict and Divorce

Not so long ago, divorce was an unusual outcome for
marriage.
 An estimated 75% of African-American and over onethird of European-American children will experience the
divorce of their parents.
 This may be partly explained by the reduced attention
and increased economic hardship experienced by these
children.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Parental Conflict and Divorce
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It may also be related to the prolonged exposure to conflict
that often accompanies divorce.
The younger the child is when the divorce occurs, the
milder the effects generally tend to be.
Longitudinal studies suggest an increased tendency to
conflict with parents and other children among children of
divorce.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Parental Conflict and Divorce
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During the first year after the divorce, children exhibit more
attention seeking and pouting behavior, and boys tend to be
more aggressive at home and school.
Effects were often worse if a non-working mother took a job
outside the home immediately afterwards.
Girls frequently have problems adjusting to life with a
stepfather, but stepsiblings in “blended” families often get
along better than do biological siblings.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Parental Conflict and Divorce
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Results vary across cultures. In African-American families
extended family members often pitch in to ease the burden.
Children of all backgrounds show a variety of adjustment
patterns. Many are amazingly resilient.
Should parents stay together for the “children’s sake”?
The answer depends on the level of conflict. Children
appear to suffer most of all, whether parents split up or stay
together, when parents are constantly battling.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Gender Influences
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
There are many interesting differences between men and
women.
People tend to have strong opinions about what causes
these differences, but there is little basis for certainty about
the causes.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Gender Influences

Cognitive differences
 Females tend to perform better in language related
tasks, especially language fluency.
 Males generally do better on difficult spatial and
mathematical tasks.
 It has been proposed that male ability in spatial tasks is
related to our early hunter-gatherer lifestyle, but male
rats seem to exhibit this quality also.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Gender Influences

Differences in social situations
 There are large and consistent differences in male and
female play, but these are only evident in social
contexts.
 Girls’ play tends to be more cooperative and quiet and
boys’ tends to be more competitive and more likely to
dissolve into disputes about rules.
 In unsupervised situations, boys often dominate and
intimidate girls.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Gender Influences

Male-female relationships
 It appears that by the time adolescence begins, males
and females are not well prepared to negotiate the
complexities of communication across sex lines.
 Males are used to demanding what they want, and
women are used to cooperating.
 Males worry more about their status compared to
other men; women don’t usually understand the
importance of status.
 Women usually require expressions of sympathy from
listeners; men often fail to understand this need.
 These are of course generalizations, and not all malefemale relationships are hampered by these issues.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Ethnic and Cultural Influences

Membership in a minority group molds a person’s
development in two ways:
 The customs of the group may differ significantly from
those of other groups.
 Members of the minority group are affected by the
attitudes of other people who may treat them differently
or expect certain behaviors of them based on
stereotypes.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Ethnic and Cultural Influences
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
Acculturation is a transition from feeling connected to the
culture of origin to feeling like part of the culture of a new
country.
It is a gradual process and may take more than a
generation to complete.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Ethnic and Cultural Influences
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Some immigrants remain partially connected to their
cultural heritage and develop a bicultural identity,
alternating between memberships in two cultures
depending on context.
To some extent we are all multicultural, as varying contexts
of work and our social lives may present us with different
rules and norms to follow.
However, for the immigrant or first generation resident of
the United States, these transitions are more pronounced
and intense.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 10: Human Development
Understanding and Accepting the Influences
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In our growing appreciation of the variety of influences on
human development, we are moving away from a unitary
view of the “right” or “normal” way to grow.
We are beginning to understand the reasons for
differences, and appreciate the diversity of adaptive ways to
be one’s self in the world.