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Review: DNA RNA Protein • In a cell, genetic information flows from DNA to RNA in the nucleus and RNA to protein at the ribosome. © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Transcription RNA polymerase Nucleus mRNA DNA Intron Figure 10.20-1 Transcription RNA polymerase Nucleus DNA mRNA Intron RNA processing Cap Tail mRNA Intron Amino acid Ribosomal subunits tRNA ATP Enzyme Amino acid attachment Initiation of translation Figure 10.20-4 Transcription RNA polymerase Polypeptide Nucleus DNA mRNA Stop codon Intron RNA processing Cap Tail Termination mRNA Intron Anticodon Ribosomal Codon subunits Amino acid tRNA ATP Enzyme Amino acid attachment Initiation of translation Elongation Figure 10.20-6 • Transcription and translation are how genes control: – The structures – The activities of cells © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Mutations • A mutation is any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. • Mutations can change the amino acids in a protein. • Mutations can involve: – Large regions of a chromosome – Just a single nucleotide pair, as occurs in sickle cell anemia © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. How can Mutations be BAD? © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. How can Mutations be GOOD? • Although mutations are often harmful, they are the source of genetic diversity, which is necessary for evolution by natural selection. © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Mutagens • Mutations may result from: – Errors in DNA replication – Physical or chemical agents called mutagens – UV rays, X-rays, gamma rays, chemicals © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Types of Mutations • Mutations within a gene can occur as a result of: – Nucleotide substitution, the replacement of one nucleotide by another – Nucleotide deletion, the loss of a nucleotide – Nucleotide insertion, the addition of a nucleotide © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. If a mutation changed a codon from GGU to GGA then what would happen? If a mutation changed a codon from GGA to UGA then what would happen? © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Normal hemoglobin DNA Mutant hemoglobin DNA mRNA mRNA Normal hemoglobin Sickle-cell hemoglobin Figure 10.21 • Insertions and deletions can: – Change the reading frame of the genetic message – Lead to disastrous effects © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. mRNA and protein from a normal gene Base substitution Figure 10.22a mRNA and protein from a normal gene Deleted Nucleotide deletion Figure 10.22b mRNA and protein from a normal gene Inserted Nucleotide insertion Figure 10.22c mRNA and protein from a normal gene (a) Base substitution Deleted (b) Nucleotide deletion Inserted (c) Nucleotide insertion Figure 10.22 Mutation by Deletion: © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Human Genome Project • Begun in 1990, the Human Genome Project was a massive scientific endeavor: – To determine the nucleotide sequence of all the DNA in the human genome and – To identify the location and sequence of every gene - Aims of the project: - to identify the estimated 100,000 genes in the human DNA. © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. • At the completion of the project in 2004: – Over 99% of the genome had been determined to 99.999% accuracy – 3.2 billion nucleotide pairs were identified – About 24,000 genes were found – About 98% of the human DNA was identified as noncoding © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. • The Human Genome Project can help map the genes for specific diseases such as: – Alzheimer’s disease – Parkinson’s disease © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 12.1 Benefits of Human Genome Project research - improvements in medicine. - microbial genome research for fuel and environmental cleanup. - DNA forensics. - improved agriculture and livestock. - better understanding of evolution and human migration. - more accurate risk assessment. © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Making Humulin • In 1982, the world’s first genetically engineered pharmaceutical product was sold. • Humulin, human insulin: – Was produced by genetically modified bacteria – Was the first recombinant DNA drug approved by the FDA – Is used today by more than 4 million people with diabetes © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. • Today, humulin is continuously produced in gigantic fermentation vats filled with a liquid culture of bacteria. © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. If a strand of DNA has the sequence AAGCTC, transcription will result in a(n) ______. A) single RNA strand with the sequence TTCGAG B) DNA double helix with the sequence AAGCTC for one strand and TTCGAG for the complementary strand C) single DNA strand with the sequence TTCGAG D) single RNA strand with the sequence UUCGAG E) RNA double helix with the sequence UUCGAG for one strand and AAGCUC for the complimentary strand © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. If a strand of DNA has the sequence AAGCTC, transcription will result in a(n) ______. A) single RNA strand with the sequence TTCGAG B) DNA double helix with the sequence AAGCTC for one strand and TTCGAG for the complementary strand C) single DNA strand with the sequence TTCGAG D) single RNA strand with the sequence UUCGAG E) RNA double helix with the sequence UUCGAG for one strand and AAGCUC for the complimentary strand © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Translation converts the information stored in ______ to ______. A) DNA . . . RNA B) RNA . . . a polypeptide C) protein . . . DNA D) DNA . . . a polypeptide E) RNA . . . DNA © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Translation converts the information stored in ______ to ______. A) DNA . . . RNA B) RNA . . . a polypeptide C) protein . . . DNA D) DNA . . . a polypeptide E) RNA . . . DNA © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Where is translation accomplished? A) lysosomes B) smooth endoplasmic reticulum C) peroxisomes D) ribosomes E) nucleoli © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Where is translation accomplished? A) lysosomes B) smooth endoplasmic reticulum C) peroxisomes D) ribosomes E) nucleoli © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. A mutation within a gene that will insert a premature stop codon in mRNA would ______. A) result in a polypeptide that is one amino acid shorter than the one produced prior to the mutation B) result in a shortened polypeptide chain C) result in a missense mutation D) change the location at which transcription of the next gene begins E) have the same effect as deleting a single nucleotide in the gene © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. A mutation within a gene that will insert a premature stop codon in mRNA would ______. A) result in a polypeptide that is one amino acid shorter than the one produced prior to the mutation B) result in a shortened polypeptide chain C) result in a missense mutation D) change the location at which transcription of the next gene begins E) have the same effect as deleting a single nucleotide in the gene © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. What is the smallest number of nucleotides that must be added or subtracted to change the triplet grouping of the genetic message? A) one B) two C) three D) four E) five © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. What is the smallest number of nucleotides that must be added or subtracted to change the triplet grouping of the genetic message? A) one B) two C) three D) four E) five © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Examine the genetic code table, shown below. The codon AGC codes for the amino acid ______. A) serine B) arginine C) threonine D) alanine E) glycine © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Examine the genetic code table, shown below. The codon AGC codes for the amino acid ______. A) serine B) arginine C) threonine D) alanine E) glycine © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. A mutation would be most harmful to the cells if it resulted in ______. A) a single nucleotide insertion near the start of the coding sequence B) a single nucleotide deletion near the end of the coding sequence C) a single nucleotide in the middle of an intron D) substitution of a base pair E) deletion of a triplet near the middle of the gene © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. A mutation would be most harmful to the cells if it resulted in ______. A) a single nucleotide insertion near the start of the coding sequence B) a single nucleotide deletion near the end of the coding sequence C) a single nucleotide in the middle of an intron D) substitution of a base pair E) deletion of a triplet near the middle of the gene © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. In a DNA double helix, adenine pairs with ______ and guanine pairs with ______. A) cytosine . . . thymine B) guanine . . . adenine C) uracil . . . cytosine D) thymine . . . cytosine E) cytosine . . . uracil © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. In a DNA double helix, adenine pairs with ______ and guanine pairs with ______. A) cytosine . . . thymine B) guanine . . . adenine C) uracil . . . cytosine D) thymine . . . cytosine E) cytosine . . . uracil © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. RNA contains the nitrogenous base ______ instead of ______, which is only found in DNA. A) a deoxyribose sugar . . . a ribose sugar B) nucleotides . . . nucleic acids C) uracil . . . thymine D) cytosine . . . guanine E) adenine . . . guanine © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. RNA contains the nitrogenous base ______ instead of ______, which is only found in DNA. A) a deoxyribose sugar . . . a ribose sugar B) nucleotides . . . nucleic acids C) uracil . . . thymine D) cytosine . . . guanine E) adenine . . . guanine © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. If one strand of a DNA double helix has the sequence GTCCAT, what is the sequence of the other strand? A) ACTTGC B) TGAACG C) CAGGTA D) CAGGUA E) CUGGTU © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. If one strand of a DNA double helix has the sequence GTCCAT, what is the sequence of the other strand? A) ACTTGC B) TGAACG C) CAGGTA D) CAGGUA E) CUGGTU © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. What name is given to the collection of traits exhibited by an organism? A) holotype B) genotype C) typology D) phenotype E) morphology © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. What name is given to the collection of traits exhibited by an organism? A) holotype B) genotype C) typology D) phenotype E) morphology © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. How many nucleotides make up a codon? A) one B) two C) three D) four E) five © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. How many nucleotides make up a codon? A) one B) two C) three D) four E) five © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Transcription is the ______. A) manufacture of a strand of RNA complementary to a strand of DNA B) manufacture of two new DNA double helices that are identical to an old DNA double helix C) modification of a strand of RNA prior to the manufacture of a protein D) manufacture of a protein based on information carried by RNA E) manufacture of a new strand of DNA complementary to an old strand of DNA © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Transcription is the ______. A) manufacture of a strand of RNA complementary to a strand of DNA B) manufacture of two new DNA double helices that are identical to an old DNA double helix C) modification of a strand of RNA prior to the manufacture of a protein D) manufacture of a protein based on information carried by RNA E) manufacture of a new strand of DNA complementary to an old strand of DNA © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.