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Chapter 4 CELLULAR METABOLISM AND REPRODUCTION: MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Introduction to Cellular Metabolism • Metabolism: total cellular chemical changes – Anabolism: process of building up – Catabolism: process of breaking down • Calorie: measure of energy contained in food • ATP: energy source available to the cell © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. CELLULAR METABOLISM OR BIOCHEMICAL RESPIRATION © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Glycolysis • Breakdown of glucose • Anaerobic or aerobic process • Final outcome – 2 pyruvic acid molecules, 2 ATP molecules (anaerobic), 8 ATP molecules (aerobic) © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The Krebs Citric Acid Cycle • Pyruvic Acid > Acetic Acid > Acetyl-CoA • Acetyl-CoA enters Krebs cycle in mitochondria • Final outcome – 6 CO2, 8 NADH2, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP (GTP) © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The Electron Transport (Transfer) System • • • • Series of reduction/oxidation reactions Requires O2 Electron carriers Number of ATP molecules dependent on electron carrier • Water is a waste product © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Summary of ATP Production • During glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport • Glycolysis: 8 ATP (aerobic) • Krebs cycle and electron transport – 28 ATP + 2 GTP or – 30 ATP • 1 glucose molecule yields 38 ATP © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Fermentation • Yeast breaks down glucose anaerobically • Pyruvic acid broken down by decarboxylase – Forms carbon dioxide and acetaldehyde • Final products: 2 ATP, CO2, ethyl alcohol © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Anaerobic Production of ATP by Muscles • Pyruvic acid converted to lactic acid – Accumulation of lactic acid causes fatigue in muscles – When oxygen supplied, lactic acid turns back into pyruvic acid • 2 ATP produced per glucose molecule © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. PRODUCTION OF ATP FROM GENERAL FOOD COMPOUNDS © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Production of ATP from General Food Compounds (cont’d.) • Carbohydrates fit into cellular furnace at same level as glucose – Can be stored in liver or as fat • Fats digested into fatty acids and glycerol – Glycerol enters at PGA stage of glycolysis – Fatty acids enter Krebs citric acid cycle © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Production of ATP from General Food Compounds (cont’d.) • Proteins digested into amino acids – Enter into Krebs cycle at different stages • Dependent on chemical structure © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. INTRODUCTION TO CELLULAR REPRODUCTION © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Introduction to Cellular Reproduction (cont’d.) • • • • Process of cell duplication Mitosis: duplication of genetic material Cytokinesis: duplication of organelles Meiosis: reduction division only in gonads © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. THE STRUCTURE OF THE DNA MOLECULE © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The History of the Discovery of DNA • • • • Friedrich Miescher, 1869: first discovery P.A. Levine, 1920s: composition Rosalind Franklin: helical structure Watson and Crick: three-dimensional structure © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The Anatomy of the DNA Molecule • Double helical chain of nucleotides – Phosphate group – Five-carbon sugars (deoxyribose) – Nitrogen-containing base • Pyrimidines (thymine and cytosine) • Purines (adenine and guanine) – Pyrimidines pair with purines – Chains held together by hydrogen bonds © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The Anatomy of the DNA Molecule (cont’d.) • Gene: sequence of base pairs that codes for polypeptide or protein • Human Genome Project – 3 billion base pairs that code for 30,000 genes • Duplication of DNA molecule – Helicase separates at hydrogen bonds – DNA polymerase adds new nucleotides © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. THE CELL CYCLE © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Introduction • All reproduction begins at cellular level • Interphase – Previously called resting stage • Mitosis • Cytokinesis © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Interphase • Time between divisions – G1: Primary growth phase – S: DNA duplication – G2: Centrioles complete duplication, mitochondria replicate, chromosomes condense and coil © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Mitosis • Prophase – Chromosomes become visible as chromatids joined by centromere – Two kinetochores at the centromere – Centrioles move to opposite poles – Nuclear membrane breaks down – Microtubules attach kinetochores to spindle © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Mitosis (cont’d.) • Metaphase – Chromatids align at equator of cell – Centromere divides © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Mitosis (cont’d.) • Anaphase – Divided centromere pulls chromatids to opposite pole – Cytokinesis begins © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Mitosis (cont’d.) • Telophase – Chromosomes uncoil and decondense – Spindle apparatus breaks down – New nuclear membrane forms – Cytokinesis nearly complete © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Animation – Mitosis • Stop and watch a 3-D presentation of mitosis. Click Here to Play Mitosis Animation © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Cytokinesis • Animal cells – Cleavage furrow forms – Cell is pinched into daughter cells • Plant cells – Cell plate forms at equator – Cell plate becomes new cell wall © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. MEIOSIS: A REDUCTION DIVISION © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Introduction • Occurs only in the gonads • Reduces genetic material from diploid to haploid • Two divisions resulting in four cells © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Stages of Meiosis • Prophase I: homologous chromosomes pair and cross over • Metaphase I: chromosomes align along equator • Anaphase I: centromeres pulled to poles – One member to each pole • Telophase I: one of each pair is at each pole © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Stages of Meiosis (cont’d.) • Prophase II: spindle forms; centrioles move to poles • Metaphase II: chromosomes line up at equator • Anaphase II: centromeres divide • Telophase II: chromatids at each pole; new nuclear membrane forms © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Animation – Meiosis • Now that you have learned about the stages of meiosis, watch the meiosis animation for a visual of this process. Click Here to Play Meiosis Animation © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. GAMETOGENESIS: THE FORMATION OF THE SEX CELLS © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Gametogenesis: The Formation of the Sex Cells (cont’d.) • Spermatogenesis – Four cells produced – Develop into sperm • Oogenesis – Four cells produced – Only one becomes functional egg © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Animation – Cancer Metastasizing • Refer to the Common Disease, Disorder or Condition box on Cancer in your textbook and read about the growth of cancer cells. Now watch the 3-D Cancer Metastasizing animation. Click Here to Play Cancer Metastasizing Animation © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Summary • Discussed how glucose is converted into ATP in the presence of oxygen • Discussed how glucose is converted into ATP in the absence of oxygen • Described how fats and proteins are converted into ATP • Discussed the cell cycle © 2012 Delmar Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.