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PLANTS & ANIMALS Plants • Modern land plants are descendants of green algae. Three obstacles that land plants had to overcome are • 1) conservation of water, • 2) reproduction on land & • 3) how to absorb minerals from the surface. • The 2 groups of modern plants include 1) vascular - these use special tissues that transport water & nutrients throughout the plant & • 2) nonvascular- these have no tissue & transport nutrients through osmosis & diffusion. Groups of Plants • I. Nonvascular Plants-Bryophytes(mosses) • II. Vascular Plants A. Seedless Vascular Plants (ferns) B. Vascular Plants with Seeds 1. Gymnosperms (pines, cycads) 2. Angiosperms (maples, roses) NONVASCULAR PLANTS • Bryophytes – These have no true roots, stems, or leaves. The life cycle of bryophytes exhibits an alternation of generations in which the haploid gametophyte is the dominant form. Bryophytes are divided into 3 classes: mosses, liverworts, & hornworts. • The mobile reproductive part of nonvascular plants are spores. Moss capsule liverwort hornwort Moss gametophyte Moss sporophyte • The diploid (2n) phase of the moss life cycle occurs when gametes fuse. The zygote develops into a sporophyte, which in turn produces haploid spores by meiosis. http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/ animations/content/moss.html Alternation of Generations Alternation of generations is a pattern of reproduction occurring in the life cycles of many lower plants and some invertebrates, involving a regular alternation between two distinct forms. The generations are alternately sexual and asexual (as in ferns). Meiosiswhen the nucleus divides in sexually reproducing organisms. Mitosis-the process where a single cell divides resulting in two identical cells. (Asexual reproduction) • The gametophytes of liverworts & hornworts are haploid. Both of these groups have a life cycle similar to that of mosses. Liverworts also reproduce asexually by spores & by the production of gemmae usually formed in special gemmae cups. • Bryophytes have rhizoids that are tiny root-like structures & cuticles that helps prevent water loss. They need water to reproduce. Rhizoids in non vascular plants are analogous to roots in vascular plants. * VASCULAR PLANTS • The vascular plants developed specialized vascular tissues as well as roots, stems, & leaves. These structures enabled vascular plants to grow taller, disperse their reproductive cells more widely, & withstand harsher conditions than nonvascular plants. Roots • Two main types of roots – Taproots – found mainly in dicots – Fibrous roots – found mainly in monocots • Two functions of roots – Anchor a plant in the ground – Absorb water and dissolved nutrients from the soil Stems • Three functions of stems: – Produce leaves, branches and flowers – Hold leaves up in the sunlight – Transport substances between roots and leaves • The vascular tissue of stems lifts water from the roots to the leaves (xylem) and sends the products of photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts of the plant (phloem) Leaves • Main function is photosynthesis (uses carbon dioxide, water and light to make glucose) – The broad, flat surface of leaves helps increase the amount of sunlight absorbed by plants • Other functions of leaves: – Transpiration – Gas exchange Leaves • Connects with exterior through stomata – allows CO2 and O2 to diffuse in and out of the leaf • Each stoma consists of two guard cells that control the opening and closing of the stomata by responding to changes in water pressure. Transpiration • Transpiration is the loss of water from a plant through its leaves. • The water is replaced by water drawn into the leaf through the xylem vessels in the vascular tissue Evaporation of water molecules out of leaves. Pull of water molecules upward from the roots. Gas Exchange • Plants keep their stomata open just enough to allow photosynthesis to take place, but not so much that they lose an excessive amount of water. • Guard cells control the stomata through changes in water pressure. – when water pressure in guard cells is high, stoma is open – When water pressure in guard cells is low, stoma is closed. – Without gas exchange, a plant would be unable to make food. • In general, stomata open in the daytime, when photosynthesis is active, and close at night to prevent water loss. • A plant will close its stomata any time water conservation is an issue Seedless Vascular Plants • Seedless vascular plants require water for sexual reproduction. Whisk ferns, horsetails, club mosses, & ferns are living relatives of the early seedless vascular plants. Ferns, the most varied seedless vascular plants, also commonly reproduce using spores formed in sori. Whisk fern Resurrection plant Club Moss Fern with sori fiddlehead http://www.harcourtschool.com/activity/sci ence_up_close/416/deploy/interface.html Vascular Plants with Seeds • Seed plants include gymnosperms & angiosperms the flowering plants. Both produce seeds that consist of an embryo plant, a cotyledon (food source) & seed coat. Gymnosperms were the 1st land plants with seeds. Their ovules develop naked. The male gametophyte is called a pollen grain. Trees produce 2 types of cones: seed cones (female) & pollen cones (male). • Examples of gymnosperms include conifers, cycads, Ginkgo, sequoias. Conifers have adapted well to life in cold, arid regions. They do not require water for reproduction. • Angiosperms are the dominant plants on Earth. They are classified as monocots or dicots. Monocots contain one cotyledon, parallel veins, flowers in multiples of 3, & scattered bundles. They include grass, wheat, corn, palms, bananas. • Dicots have 2 cotyledons, netlike veins, flowers in 4’s or 5’s & bundles in circles. They include maples, roses, oaks, tomatoes. Angiosperms produce seeds & fruits that provide much of the food essential for animal life. They enclose their seeds in fruits that help ensure their survival. Comparison of Monocots and Dicots PLANT TISSUE • Plants contain 3 kinds of tissue: epidermal (outer layer), vascular (tube-like), & ground (cushions & protects). All new plant cells are produced in specific areas called meristems. Cells produced in the root’s apical meristem differentiate into the epidermis, cortex, & vascular cylinder. Roots may develop as taproots or fibrous roots. All roots anchor the plant, absorb water & minerals, & store food. • Stems support plant growth above the ground & transport water & food between the leaves & roots. The vascular tissue found here includes xylem which takes nutrients from the roots to the leaves & phloem which takes nutrients from the leaves to the roots. Herbaceous stems are supported by turgor pressure. Woody stems are supported by the wood produced by secondary growth. • Most of a plant’s photosynthetic cells are contained in the leaves. Leaves exchange gases & release water by the opening & closing of their stomata which are tiny pores. Water movement in plants results from root pressure, capillary action & the pull created by transpiration. • Capillary action pulls water up into the xylem. The evaporation of water from the leaves (transpiration ) causes the pulling of the water. 90% of the water is lost as vapor through transpiration. Translocation occurs when carbohydrates are moved from the leaves to the roots. REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS • Flowers consist of highly modified leaves that are specialized to carry out sexual reproduction. Essential flower parts include the pollen-producing anther & the pistil that contains the ovary. The nonessential flower parts protect & adorn the reproductive structures & aid in pollination. They are called calyx (sepals) & corolla (petals). • A perfect complete flower has all the essential & nonessential flower parts – ex. roses, lily, tomatoes. An incomplete flower lacks 1 or more parts – ex. grass, corn, squash. An imperfect flower has the reproductive structures of only 1 sex – ex. holly, persimmon, squash. • Pollination is the process of transferring ripe pollen from the anther (where it is produced) to the stigma. Each pollen grain contains a tube nucleus & a generative nucleus. The generative cell produces 2 sperm cells. • In double fertilization, one sperm fuses with the egg cell while the other fuses with the polar body. This forms a embryo & endosperm which nourishes the developing embryo. In selfpollination pollen stays on 1 flower. In crosspollination the pollen is transferred to another plant of the same species. • A fruit develops from the ovary of a flower. Fleshy fruits are attractive to animals, which eat them & then disperse their seeds. Dry fruits have structures that help carry their seeds in air & wind currents. • A fruit is a ripened ovary that contains seeds. Seed dispersal… Blackberry Seeds “Helicopters” By wind… By animal… Why do you think?… • Simple fruits have a single ovary – ex. apple, plum, grapes. Aggregate fruits contain many pistils on the same flower – ex. strawberry, blackberry. Multiple fruits have many single fruits that fuse together to form 1 single structure – ex. pineapple, corn, fig. • Seeds are dispersed by wind, water, animals, & explosion. Seeds usually experience a dormant period before germination. • Plants produced asexually have the same DNA as the parent plant. Plant cultivators use methods of artificial propagation such as cutting & grafting. Vegetative Reproduction Vegetative reproduction is when new plants grow from parts of existing plants. Three categories of plant life spans • annuals – flowering plants that complete a life cycle within one growing season. They have to be replanted every year. (ex. Petunia, corn, watermelon) • biennials – complete their life cycle in two years. Flowers or fruit show up every other year. (ex. Cabbage, carrots) • perennials – flowering plants that live for more than two years (ex. Apples, clover) Plant Responses •The response of plants to environmental stimuli are called tropisms. •Tropisms demonstrate the ability of plants to respond effectively to conditions in which they live Light •The response of a plant to light is known as phototropism • Phototropism causes a plant to grow toward a light source Gravitropism • Gravitropism causes the shoots of a germinating seed to grow out of the soil against the force of gravity • It also causes the roots of a plant to grow with the force of gravity and into the soil Response to Touch •The response of plants to touch is called thigmotropism. •An example of thigmotropism is the growth of vines and climbing plants. •Invertebrates - No backbone Porifera – sponges • Assymmetrical (no symmetry) • Sessile (attached) as adults • Reproduce by fragmentation • Filter feeders • Have no tissue and no organs Cnidaria – jellyfish, sea anemones, corals, portuguese man-o-war • jelly-like • no specialized organs-have only one body opening; made of 2 layers of cells • stinging cells (cnidocytes) • Most are found in marine water • Radial symmetry Platyhelminthes – flatworms * soft, thin, flatbodies • Belong to the phylum platyhelminthes. (Plat = flat) • They are acoelomates (they don’t have body cavities) • They have bilateral symmetry • Show cephalization • Respiration through skin • Single opening to digestive tract (pharynx) Nematoda –round worms * Most are parasitic Belong to phylum Nematoda Pseudocoelomates (fluid filled body cavity) Slender bodies that taper on both ends Have mouth and anus Can be free-living or parasitic *The hookworm is a parasitic nematode worm that lives in the small intestine of its host. They are contracted by humans when they go barefoot in contaminated soil Round Worms • Trichinella is the genus of parasitic roundworms of the phylum Nematoda that cause trichinosis (also known as trichinellosis). • Trichinosis is transmitted by eating undercooked pork and causes abdominal discomfort, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, and fever. Annelida Includes duster worms, earthworms, & leeches Abundant in all habitats Have a true coelom fully lined with mesoderm Body divided into external segments called metameres (metamerism) Arthropoda – segmented bodies, exoskeleton (chitin), jointed appendages Arthropods • Insects – beetles, butterfly, ants, etc. *3 body segments, some have wings Arthropods In complete metamorphosis an insect goes through four distinct stages: Egg-Larva-PupaAdult. Arthropods • Crustacean – crab, crayfish, lobster etc. *2 body segments – live mainly in water Arthropods • Arachnid- scorpion, spiders, etc. *2 body segments, 8 legs, no antennae Arthropods • Myriapod – centipede, millipede *long flat bodies, many legs Mollusca * soft-bodied, usually have a shell, unsegmented, have a muscular foot (for locomotion and anchorage) and mantle (covers the organs of digestion) Echinoderms – starfish, sea urchin, sand dollar * Marine animals, plates with spines, radial symmetry *They push their stomachs out, spread digestive enzymes, and bring in digested food. *Are deuterostomes—anus formed first. Nonvertebrate Chordates-have the same characteristics as Chordates except they do not have vertebrae. Ex. Tunicates, called “Sea Squirts” Chordates •Vertebrates - Have a backbone - Have endoskeleton • Fishes – salmon, tuna, sharks, rays, etc. *aquatic, most are marine *The first vertebrates were fish. *Sharks, eels and rays have skeletons made of cartilage. Amphibians – frogs, salamanders *Wide variety of habitat, typically start out as larva living in water *Ectothermic-cold blooded, body temperature is regulated by the environment. Reptiles- snakes, turtles, iguana *dry, scaly skin protects against dehydration *Ectothermic-cold blooded, body temperature is regulated by the environment. *Do not have to return to water to reproduce because they have an amniotic egg. Birds – toucan, penguin, eagle, hummingbird *Have feathers and wings, not all can fly Mammals – platypus, kangaroos, humans, rodents * mammary glands, hair, live birth (except monotremes) *Endothermic-warm blooded, body regulates the internal temperature. Habitat of Animals • All biomes Groups of Animals • Invertebrates (without backbones) • Vertebrates (with backbones) Cell Type • All animals are eukaryotes. • No animal cells have cell walls. Uni- or multicellular? • All animals are multicellular. Nutrition in Animals • All animals are heterotrophic. • They can be filter feeders, predators, parasites, herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, scavengers, or detritivores. Transforming Matter & Energy • Animals use cell respiration (either anaerobic fermentation or aerobic respiration) to transform food particles into useful forms of energy. Transporting Matter & Energy • Simple animals use diffusion • More advanced organisms have circulatory systems. • Animals may have open or closed circulatory systems. Eliminating Matter & Energy • Simple animals use diffusion to remove wastes from their bodies. • More advanced animals use excretory systems to remove wastes (nephridia or kidneys). Reproduction in Animals • Some invertebrates reproduce asexually through fission (stony corals), budding (hydra), fragmentation (planarians) or regeneration (sponges). Others reproduce sexually through sperm & eggs. Reproduction in Animals • Vertebrates reproduce sexually through sperm & eggs & may be either internal or external fertilization. Types of reproduction in animals • Oviparous-lay eggs that must hatch. Ex. chickens • Viviparous-internal fertilization and the young are born alive, attached to a placenta. Ex. humans • Ovoviviparous-internal fertilization and the young are born live, but there is no placental connection and the unborn young are nourished by egg yolk. They are kept inside the mother until ready to hatch. ex. sharks and rays Facts about humans as animals: • Humans possess a heart with 4 chambers to pump oxygen throughout the body in the blood stream. • Humans exhibit cephalization--the concentration of sense organs and nervous system at the anterior (front/top) end of the body, forming a head and brain. • Hair and body fat helps mammals retain body heat.