Download Ecology

Ecology
Chapters 2, 3, 4 & 5
Ecology….
study of the interactions
of living things with each other
and with the environment
Ecologist = person who studies ecology
BIOSPHERE = the Earth
includes all
areas
where life
exists
Biotic and Abiotic Factors
BIOTIC FACTORS/COMPONENTS –
living or once living things
ABIOTIC FACTORS/COMPONENETS –
the physical, nonliving environment
In this scene,…
What is biotic?
What is abiotic?
In this scene….
What is biotic?
What is abiotic?
Biotic or Abiotic?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Feathers
Rocks
Soil
Water
Grasses
Fungi
Bones
Temperature
Levels of Organization - Hierarchy of Life
Organism:
a SINGLE LIVING THING
(simplest/smallest level)
Population: all MEMBERS of a SINGLE SPECIES in an area
Community: all the SPECIES (biotic factors) in an area
Ecosystem: all the SPECIES (biotic factors) and
ABIOTIC factors in an area
Biome:
large geographical region consisting of
ECOSYSTEMS having a characteristic climate
and characteristic organisms
Biosphere: all areas of the Earth where life exists
(broadest/largest/most inclusive level)
Habitat and Niche
habitat – address of organism; where an
organism lives
niche – job of an organism; role(s) it plays in
its environment
Birds of North Georgia
Would they have an identical habitat?
Would they have an identical niche?
Indigo Bunting
Eastern Bluebird
Scarlet Tanager
Species Interactions aka Community Species
(interactions between the species living in an area)
• Competition
• Predation
• Symbiotic Relationships (symbioses)
– Mutualism
– Commensalism
– Parasitism
COMPETITION
• when 2 organisms compete
• results from niche overlap
Organisms Compete For…
food, water, mates + habitat
Competitive Exclusion…
where one species is eliminated
What would these zebra compete for?
PREDATION
when…..
• 1 individual kills another = PREDATOR
• 1 individual is killed = PREY
PREDATION IS one way in which natural selection occurs
Examples…
hawk  snake
lion  gazelle
fox  rabbit
Anti-Predator Adaptations (aka Defenses)
Most organisms are vulnerable to predation…
Defenses against predators include…
– Camouflage
– Mimicry
– Warning Coloration
– Protective Coverings
– Secondary Compounds
CAMOUFLAGE
coloration or patterns that help
blend in with the surroundings
MIMICRY
to mimic or copy;
harmless species resembles a venomous or distasteful species
Warning Coloration
characteristic of a poisonous or unpalatable organism
serves to warn off potential predators
Protective Coverings
covering intended to protect from damage or injury
Secondary Compounds
substances (chemicals) produced by plants as a
byproduct of metabolism; usually poisonous,
irritating, or distasteful
Example: poison ivy
Types of Symbioses…
Mutualism….
both organisms benefit
Commensalism….
1 benefits + other is unaffected
Parasitism….
1 is harmed (HOST) + other benefits (PARASITE)
What type of symbiosis?
Examine the following slides….is it?
Mutualism
Commensalism
Parasitism
Acacia Plant
and Ants
• Ants protect
acacia from
grazing
herbivores
• Acacia provides
ants with a place
to live and nectar
at the base of leaf
stalks
Flower and Bumble Bee
• Flower gets
pollinated
by the bee
• Bee gets
nectar and
pollen from
the flower
Silverfish and
Army Ants
some species of silverfish inhabit the nests of
army ants and live by scavenging on the refuse
of their hosts, but without affecting the ants
Tapeworm and Human
• Worm infects the human body…..
Lichen : Fungus and Alga
• Fungi support and
protect the algae,
allowing it to live
in areas usually
unsuitable to the
algae
• Algae provide
food through the
process of
photosynthesis
Clown Fish with Anemone
Clown Fish
gets …
protection
from
predators
Sea Anemone
gets …
?
Tunga Fleas (arthropods found in tropical and sub-tropical
climates) burrow into exposed skin on the feet of mammals
and remain there for two weeks while developing eggs.
Some wasps lay their eggs on the Tomato Horn Worm (caterpillar).
When the wasp eggs hatch, the larvae have an instant meal.
How Living Things Meet
Their Energy Needs
The energy source for most living things is….
the SUN
Energy must be constantly supplied!!!
It is NOT recycled!!!
AUTO-TROPHS (producers)
produce their own food and
meet their own energy needs
auto – troph = “self feeder”
AUTO-TROPHS
PHOTO-AUTO-TROPHS
(plants, algae, some bacteria)
PERFORM….PHOTO-SYNTHESIS
CHEMO-AUTO-TROPHS
(some bacteria)
PERFORM….CHEMO-SYNTHESIS
HETERO-TROPHS (consumers)
cannot produce their food and must
consume (EAT) other living things
hetero - troph = “other feeder”
Many kinds of hetero-trophs ….
VORE = means “to eat”
Herbi-vores – to each herbs (plants)
Carni-vores – to eat flesh (animals)
Omni-vores – to eat all (plants + animals)
Detriti-vores – to eat detritus (dead organic matter)
includes…worms, beetles
Many kinds of hetero-trophs ….
What is the difference between a
detritivore and a decomposer?
• both are heterotrophs
• both feed on the same thing (decaying organic matter)
DETRITI-VORES
DECOMPOSERS
• consume (eat) dead
things (organic matter)
• worms, millipedes, flies,
slugs, beetles, grubs,…
• break down dead things
(organic matter) by
decomposition
• bacteria & fungi
Energy Flow through an Ecosystem
THE SUN
producers
consumers
Energy flows in ONE DIRECTION
Energy is TRANSFERRED from one to another
TROPHIC LEVEL = a “feeding” level
trophic level = organism’s position in the
sequence of energy transfers
What is the number of feeding levels in the diagram?
HINT - even plants must have food
Food Chain
energy transfer
from one
organism to
another
by eating and
being eaten
Food Web
interrelated
food chains
within an
ecosystem
many feeding
relationships
Is this a food chain
or a food web?
How many
trophic levels
are in
the diagram?
Ecological Pyramids – 3 kinds
show the relative amounts of
MATTER AND ENERGY contained within
each trophic level
ENERGY PYRAMID
BIOMASS PYRAMID
PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
Energy Pyramid
represents the relative amount of ENERGY
available at each trophic level
• 10 % is transferred to the next trophic level
• 90% is lost as heat or is used in life processes ….
–such as digestion, running, eating, respiration,
maintaining temperature, sleeping,….
Energy Pyramid
Biomass Pyramid
represents the amount of BIOMASS
(living organic matter) at each trophic level
Pyramid of Numbers
represents the relative
# of individual
organisms at each
trophic level
Section 2.3 - Cycling of Matter
There is a FINITE amount of matter …
we only have so much stuff….
MATTER must be RECYCLED!!!
MATTER = anything that has mass and takes up space
NUTRIENT = chemical substance that an organism needs
and must obtain from the envioronment - C, H, O, N…
matter MUST BE RECYCLED through
ORGANISMS (biotic) and the BIOSPHERE (abiotic)
BIO
GEO
Bio-geo-chemical Cycle (aka Nutrient Cycle)
(“life”- “earth” – “chemical” cycle)
cycle involving the movement of chemicals (nutrients) through living (bio)
and the envioronment (geo)
The Water Cycle
(also called the hydrologic cycle)
movement of water between the….
ocean, land, atmosphere (GEO) + living things (BIO)
Evaporation – water changes from liquid to gas
Transpiration – water loss (evaporation) from plants
Perspiration – water loss (evaporation) from animals
Condensation – formation of liquid water from water vapor
Precipitation – water returns to Earth’s surface as
rain, snow, sleet or hail
Importance of Water…key component of cytoplasm, cells, tissues, …
Carbon(& Oxygen) Cycle
cycling of C and O between the components of the biosphere –
organisms (BIO), air, water, land, (GEO)
Important processes in this cycle….
• Decomposition • Combustion • (Cellular) Respiration • Photosynthesis –
Importance of carbon + oxygen –
key ingredient in all living things C, H, O, N,…
Nitrogen Cycle
cycling of N between…
living things (BIO) + water, land, atmosphere (GEO)
Nitrogen Fixation – conversion of nitrogen gas into ammonia –
performed by some bacteria
Denitrification – conversion of nitrates into nitrogen gas –
performed by some bacteria
Assimilation - to incorporate (N or other substances)
into cells and tissues
Why is N important? necessary make amino acids which
in turn are used to make proteins (in protein synthesis)
Phosphorus Cycle
cycling of P between living organisms (BIO) and
rocks, soil and ocean sediments (GEO)
unlike water, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen …
phosphorus does not usually enter the ATMOSPHERE
phosphorus is important because…
component of DNA, RNA, ATP
Community, Ecosystem, Biome
What is …
a community? – all LT in an area
an ecosystem? – all LT and non LT in an area
a biome? – large geographical area with
characteristic climate and
characteristic organisms
Limiting Factor - biotic or abiotic factor that
restricts the numbers, reproduction, or
distribution of an organism
Examples …
food, water, habitat, disease, fire and other
natural disasters,….
Range of Tolerance
the ability of an organism to survive
EXAMPLE - fish have a range of tolerance regarding the
temperature of the water – it can get too cold or too hot for
them to survive
Ecological Succession
changes in a community over time
Primary Succession
occurs on new land areas where no soil exists
EXAMPLES - volcanic islands, bare rock, glacier melting, sand dunes…
Secondary Succession
occurs on existing land areas where a
community was already established – where soil exists
EXAMPLES – fire, plowing a field, natural disaster,…
Pioneer Community …
1st living things to establish themselves in an area
Pioneer Species – the first species in an area – usually mosses and
lichens (mutualistic symbiosis between a fungus + alga)
Seral Community(ies) …
• intermediate stage(s)
Climax Community…
• the end result of succession
• the final (stable) community in an area
The climax community of
The southeastern US is a
temperate deciduous forest.
The climax community
of southern California
is a desert.
Primary and Secondary Succession - http://glencoe.mcgrawhill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=swf::550::400::/sites/dl/free/0078802849/383927/A_Climax_Community.swf::A%20Cli
max%20Community
WEATHER
the day to day
conditions at a
particular time and
place
What was the weather
on Thanksgiving Day
(Thursday, Nov 27)?
LATITUDE
• the distance N or S of the equator
• sunlight strikes the Earth differently depending on latitude
3 Climate Zones
• the sun strikes the Earth differently – depending on latitude
• most directly at the equator
• this results in 3 climate zones
POLAR
TEMPERATE
TROPICAL
CLIMATE
average year to year
conditions of temperature
& precipitation
in an area
What is our climate?
What is Alaska’s climate?
FACTORS that affect CLIMATE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Latitude – greatest effect on climate
elevation/altitude (height above sea level)
land masses
ocean currents/circulation
Air currents/circulation (winds)
Greenhouse Effect
• natural phenomenon in which some heat is retained
(TRAPPED) by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
• helps keep the planet warm and makes life on Earth possible
GLOBAL WARMING = a gradual increase in the Earth’s temperature
some scientists believe that humans are causing an
ENHANCED GREENHOUSE EFFECT
(due to the burning of fossil fuels
which increase CO2 levels in the atmosphere)
In summary…
Latitude  determines climate
Climate  determines weather
Weather  determines precipitation
Precipitation  determines flora (plant life)
Flora determines fauna (animal life)
BIOME
large geographical areas/regions having…
characteristic temperature range and precipitation
characteristic plants and animals
CLASSIFIED BY….
DOMINANT TYPE OF VEGETATION PRESENT
examples - forest, grassland, desert,….
Tundra
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
polar regions
cold & treeless
permafrost - permanently frozen soil
little precipitation (mostly frozen)
Flora: Small, slow growing plants (grass, moss, sedge)
Fauna: caribou, arctic fox, snowy owl, musk oxen
summer can cause boggy ponds & different fauna
Tundra
Taiga (or Boreal Forest or N Coniferous Forest)
• cone-bearing, evergreen trees (CONIFERS)
• Flora: pines, hemlocks, spruces, junipers, firs
• Fauna: moose, grizzly bear, wolf
Taiga (or Boreal Forest or Coniferous Forest)
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Temperate Deciduous Forest
•
•
•
•
•
deciduous trees (trees that lose their leaves)
rich soil - due to leaf litter on forest floor
warmer winter, longer summers = temperate
Flora: birch, oak, maple, dogwood, & some evergreens
Fauna: fox, squirrel, deer, raccoon, black bear, coyote
*you live in this biome
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Temperate Woodland/Shrubland
or Chaparral
•
•
•
•
•
•
open woodland with mixed shrubs
soil – thin, poor, often rocky
not enough rainfall to support trees
summer - dry and desert-like – fires are common
Flora: shrubs, small trees, herbs
Fauna: mule deer, coyotes, puma, foxes, mice, …
characteristic of
the “Old West”
CHAPPARAL - west coast of US, west coast of South
America, tip of South Africa, S coast of Australia
and coastal areas of the Mediterranean
Temperate Grassland
•
•
•
•
•
also known as prairies (“the bread basket”)
dominated by grasses - few trees
rich, fertile soil
Flora: corn, wheat, potatoes, many other cereal grains
Fauna: coyote, gopher, bison, antelope,…
Temperate Grassland
Desert
•
•
•
•
can be hot desert or cold desert
less than 10 inches (25 cm) rainfall per year
sparse vegetation
vegetation has adaptations for the dry conditions
– waxy coating, water storage, thorns for protection
• Flora: cacti, Joshua trees, creosote,…
• Fauna: kit foxes, snakes, lizards, road runners,…
Hot Desert
Tropical
Grassland
or
Tropical
Savanna
Tropical Grassland or Tropical Savanna
• can be in tropical or subtropical regions
• Flora: mainly grasslands with scattered trees & shrubs
• Fauna: herbivores (zebra, giraffe, gazelle) as well as
carnivores (lions, leopards, cheetahs)
Tropical Grassland or Tropical Savanna
Tropical Rainforest
• most productive biome –
GREATEST BIODIVERSITY
(variety of living things)
• little variation in temperature
• much precipitation (100+ inches/year)
• rains almost daily
• warm year round
Tropical Rainforest
Flora: lilies, orchids, vines, broad-leaved trees, ferns,…
Fauna: sloth, birds, monkeys, beetles, butterflies…
scarlet macaw
marmoset
Tropical Rain Forests
Why are mountains not included with biomes?
with increasing altitude….
• temperature and precipitation change
• biotic communities change
Why are polar regions not included with biomes?
• border the tundra
• cold all year long
N Pole – ice covered Artic ocean and Greenland
- polar bears, artic fox, whales, seals, fish, krill…
S pole – ice covered Antarctica
- penguins, whales, seals, fish, krill,….
Aquatic/Water Ecosystems
are determined/classified by temperature, rate of flow, depth
of water and water chemistry - pH, salinity, dissolved
oxygen,…
Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystems
- contain little dissolved salt
- include rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, swamps, bogs…
- make up only 3% of all the water on Earth
- most freshwater is “tied up” in glaciers and polar ice caps
Freshwater Ecosystems
Flowing
Water
rivers
streams
Standing
Water
lakes
ponds
vary as the land
and climate through
which it flows varies
slow moving or
still water:
sunlight only
reaches upper
regions
Freshwater
Wetlands
marshes
swamps
bogs
water covers land
all or part
of the year
Transitional Aquatic Ecosystems
Wetlands
Estuary
area of land covered with water –
may be temporary, seasonal or
always under water; generally
shallow water
area where rivers flow into the oceans
meet salt water; affected by the rise
and fall of tides; generally shallow
water;
serve as spawning areas and
nurseries for many aquatic species
can be freshwater
or saltwater
where freshwater
meets saltwater
Marine Aquatic Ecosystems
- contain a high percentage of dissolved salt
- make up 97% of all the water on Earth
- oceans, coral reefs, bays, gulfs, seas, coastal areas,
intertidal zone….
Terminology….
Sediment – deposited material (dirt, rocks, sand,…)
Plankton – cannot swim against the current, “drifters”
• algae, small fish, bacteria, jellyfish
• basis for most food chains
Phyto-plankton (plant like organisms)
Zoo-plankton (animal like organisms)
Chapter 4 – Population Ecology
Section 4.1 – Population Dynamics
3 characteristics of populations…
1. Population density
2. Population dispersion
3. Population range
Population Density
The number of individuals in a given area
Population Dispersion
• arrangement/distribution of a population
• can be clumped, random, uniform
Population Range
limited area in which a
population is found
EXAMPLE …
POLAR BEARS are only found in the
Northern Hemisphere
while PENGUINS are only found in
the Southern Hemisphere
Limiting Factor
any factor that limits the size, reproduction or
distribution of a population
Examples – food, water, mates, disease,
habitat, natural disasters,…
Limiting Factor
Density Independent
Density Dependent
• Not affected by size of
population
• Affected by size of
population
• Usually abiotic
• Usually biotic
• Examples…heat, cold,
natural disasters (drought,
flood, fire, tornado….)
• Examples…predation,
disease, parasites,
competition, food , water
Limiting Factor
How does a limiting factor affect the growth
of a population?
• keeps size of population in check
• changes the # of individuals that can survive
Examples of Limiting Factors…
food, water, mates, disease, habitat, natural disasters,…
Exponential Growth
 population grows faster and faster
 “J” shaped graph (blue line shown below)
 occurs when…. there is plenty of food, water,
space and little or no competition or predators
Carrying Capacity…………………………………………….………………..…
Exponential Growth
KUDZU - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0-Hbl0bV8FA – 1 min
Infested – Mice - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IOwinLWrEIw&list=PLE4134CC2388AEF53 –
2 min
Logistical Growth
• population decreases with increasing number of
individuals until it reaches a zero growth rate
• “S” shaped graph (red line shown below)
• occurs when there are limiting factors present
Carrying Capacity……………………………………………………….…………
Carrying Capacity…
number of individuals that
can be supported by a given area
Reproductive Strategies
“R” strategists/selection
•
•
•
•
many offspring
short gestation (pregnancy)
less parental care
short time until sexual
maturity
• short life span
roaches are
R strategists
“K” strategists/selection
•
•
•
•
few offspring
long gestation (pregnancy)
more parental care
long time until sexual
maturity
• long life span
kangaroos are
K strategists
R or K strategist?
Demography = the study human populations…
births,
deaths,
income,
disease,
economics,
social structure …
Human Population has experienced
EXPONENTIAL GROWTH
1800’s – human population 1 billion
2013 – human population 7 billion+
(just 213 years later)
What factors have allowed the
human population to experience
exponential growth?….
•
•
•
•
•
•
improvements in agriculture
domestication of animals
technological advances
inventions (light bulb, telephone, computer,…)
improvements in nutrition, medicine and disease control
improvements in shelter
Zero Population Growth…
• occurs when birth rate = death rate
Human Population Growth is causing…
•
•
•
•
•
severe overcrowding in some areas
increase in energy demands
need for increased food supply
need for increased waste disposal
rapid ecological changes…
(habitat destruction, overhunting, diseases,….)
Chapter 5 – Biodiversity & Conservation
Extinction = occurs when a species no longer exists
(all individuals have died)
Biodiversity = variety of living things
• 3 kinds of biodiversity
– Species biodiversity
– Ecosystem biodiversity
– Genetic biodiversity
3 types of biodiversity
• Genetic diversity
• Species diversity
• Ecosystem biodiversity
Importance of Biodiversity
• Economic value – biodiversity provides food,
medicine, clothing, energy, recreation,
shelter,….
• Stability of ecosystems – loss of just 1 species
can threaten an ecosystem
• Scientific value -
What is a Natural Resource
any item from nature that is valuable or useful….
• clean air & clean water
• gold, silver, mercury, uranium,….
• animals
• plants
• mountains
Threat to Biodiversity – Overexploitation
• Overexploitation = excessive use of species
having economic value
Examples
• bison hunted to brink of extinction
• passenger pigeon hunted to extinction
Threat to Biodiversity - Habitat Loss
occurs because of ….
• habitat destruction
• habitat degradation/disruption
• habitat fragmentation
Threat to Biodiversity - Biomagnification
the accumulation of
more and more toxins
at successive (higher)
trophic levels
(in a food chain)
Threat to Biodiversity - Acid Precipitation/Rain
• When fossil fuels are burned , sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxides are often released into
the atmosphere – these can combine with
precipitation and form sulfuric acid and nitric
acid , leading to acid precipitation
• Normal precipitation is 5.6 – 6.0
• Acid precipitation below 5.6
Threat to Biodiveristy - Eutrophication
Eutrophication = increase in nutrients in a body of
water; can be natural or artificial
Threat to Biodiversity - Alien Species
• AKA introduced, invasive, exotic ,
nonnative species
• Introduced (either accidentally or on
purpose) into an ecosystem to which is
does not belong
• Have no natural predators so
population increases; competes with
native species for food and habitat;
often preys on native species
• Kudzu – purposely planted in
the south to control erosion
Natural Resource
any item from nature that is valuable or useful…
Renewable
Natural Resource
• Infinite amount
• Can be replaced (by natural
processes) in a relatively
short period of time
(lifetime)
• Animals, plants, water,
Nonrenewable
Natural Resource
• Finite amount
• Cannot be replaced in a
relatively short period of
time (lifetime)
• Fossil fuels – coal, oil,
natural gas
• Precious metals – gold,
silver, platinum
• Uranium ,….
Sustainability
the use of resources at a rate at which they can be
replaced or recycled
• sustainable practices…
• sustainable products…
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS –
areas having high species diversity that are threatened
- such as islands, tropical rain forests, coral reefs and coastal areas
Endemic Species
• AKA indigenous or native species
• Species found only in a specific location
Example – lemurs which are native only to Madagascar; all 33
species are endangered due to habitat loss
Plant Responses (Tropisms)
• Phototropism =
response toward light
• Geo/Gravitropism =
response toward
gravity
• Thigmotropism =
response to pressure
or touch