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Transcript
n chapter 2 we examine behavioral learning theories and applications that derive mostly from Skinner's work. He agreed with Watson's idea that psychology should only be concerned with objective data on behavior. Skinner's ideas center on the idea of reinforcement. QUESTION : How does skinner's idea of reinforcement differ from Pavlov's idea about classical conditioning? (Hint: For example, when a bell rings, which types of subsequent behaviors are classically conditioned and which are operantly conditioned? ) Skinner's ideas are pretty controversial to many. There is plenty to criticize as well as praise in behaviorism. Let's think about the positive and negative aspects of his theory and applications. Here are two positives. Skinner believed in the elimination of the use of punishment and the power of positive consequences at home and in school. QUESTION: What are some other positives regarding Skinner's ideas that you know of? Here are two negatives suggested by critics: 1 -- Paying kids (reinforcement) or even giving them points or pizza for reading is bribery – it sends the wrong message and makes supports the idea that they need to get something more for any learning effort. 2 -- Teaching machines or computer-based instruction "dehumanizes" the learning process. QUESTION: What are some other negatives regarding Skinner's ideas that you can think of? There are some important distinctions among behavioral applications such as positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, presentation punishment, and removal punishment. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT is the most easily understood in that it involves giving someone something satisfying to get them to engage in a desired behavior again. Reinforcement can include money, candy, food, praise, or attention. The most frequent problem with this principle, in general, is that people often use inappropriate reinforcers that, by definition, are not actually reinforcers, such as giving someone praise when they do not like receiving praise in public. Too much reliance on material reinforcers can also set up an undesired expectation for reinforcement. It can also undermine pre-existing motivation. QUESTION: In what type of situations could positive reinforcement "undermine" pre-existing motivation to behave in a desirable way? PRESENATION PUNISHMENT is what we typically think of as punishment, such as scolding, spanking, detention or anything aversive to get someone to stop an undesired behavior. Again, a common problem with presentation punishment is that some punishments are actually reinforcing to people, and generally, as Skinner pointed out, punishment is much less effective than reinforcement, particularly in the long run. QUESTION: What is a situation where punishment may be the best alternative? NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT is one principle that people often confused. It deals with getting rid of, or avoiding something aversive in order to increase a desired behavior. For instance, doing homework to get rid of guilty feelings, the possibility of failure, or someone nagging you. As a teacher, allowing students out of spelling practice if they get and A on their spelling test. A caution: In school, teachers should be careful about supporting the idea that certain tasks are aversive, such as homework or other types of studying. That is, letting them get out of doing homework supports the idea that homework is undesirable, rather than a potentially stimulating or useful experience. If homework is not a potentially stimulating or useful experience, ask yourself why that is. QUESTION: What are some other examples of Negative Reinforcement? REMOVAL PUNISHMENT, aka REINFORCEMENT REMOVAL is often confused with Presentation Punishment or Negative Reinforcement. It deals with losing something desirable as a consequence of an undesirable behavior. So, like Presentation punishment, it is used to help get rid of undesired behaviors. Traffic tickets are an example. A traffic ticket, a fine, losing points, or losing tokens are all types of removal punishment called response cost. Time-out is also a removal punishment. Removal punishments and negative reinforcements are usually considered to be better first steps than punishment because the child, for example, typically has more control, and is less likely to experience learned helplessness. QUESTION: Why is time-out so often ineffective for many teachers? One reason, among other possibilities, is that well intentioned people are calling their approach "time out" only because they think they are using time out, when in fact they are not--they are often using reinforcement without realizing it, thus giving time-out a bad name. In order to initiate new behaviors we have Shaping, Chaining, Fading procedures. SHAPING involves rewarding behaviors that are not quite complete but "almost there"., such as rewarding some sort of progress, or getting a piece of the ball with the bat, for instance. The idea is that one may not want to wait for the perfect behavior to exist before rewarding. QUESTION: What are some other examples of shaping? CHAINING involves learning complex behaviors by linking together a long sequence of actions. This requires first doing a task analysis to break down each little task in the complex behavior, to allow the learner to focus on each little task as you link or chain them together. This is often effective with students who have cognitive disabilities for doing things like getting dressed. Animals are often trained in this way, also. Still, it can be useful with anybody for learning that involves many parts. QUESTION: What are some other examples of chaining? FADING is the gradual elimination of assistance such as when you teach kids to write by having them trace dashed versions of the letters, then fading them away as they get better. Or it can be used with something like rope climbing. QUESTION: How could you teach rope-climbing, for example, using fading? Fixed Interval, Fixed Ratio, Variable Interval, Variable Ratio are four schedules of reinforcement. Fixed can mean predictable or consistently, while Variable can mean unpredictable or intermittently. Variable schedules of reinforcement usually lead to more consistent responding by people and animals. QUESTION: Why do variable schedules of reinforcement lead to more consistent responding and what is an example with children? Other Applications of behaviorism that you are probably familiar with include: Classroom Management, catch-em-being-good, rules-ignore-praise, Instructional Objectives, and Self-Paced Instruction. Summary of thinking questions to consider from Chapter 2: QUESTION : How does skinner's idea of reinforcement differ from Pavlov's idea about classical conditioning? QUESTION: What are some other positives regarding Skinner's ideas that you know of? QUESTION: What are some other negatives regarding Skinner's ideas that you can think of? QUESTION: In what type of situations could positive reinforcement "undermine" pre-existing motivation to behave in a desirable way? QUESTION: What is a situation where punishment may be the best alternative? QUESTION: What are some other examples of Negative Reinforcement? QUESTION: Why is time-out so often ineffective for many teachers? QUESTION: What are some other examples of shaping? QUESTION: What are some other examples of chaining? QUESTION: How could you teach rope-climbing, for example, using fading? QUESTION: Why do variable schedules of reinforcement lead to more consistent responding and what is an example with children?