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BIOL 211 SI, Molly Dr. Serb and Dr. Raich EXAM 4 REVIEW, 11/16/14 What have we covered so far? Cell cycle o Interphase o Mitosis o Meiosis I and II Cancer Mendel’s experiment Punnett Square Inheritance using the Punnett Square and test crosses Scientists and their contribution to Evolution and Natural Selection Darwin’s Theory of Evolution via Natural Selection Darwin’s 4 Postulates Ernst Mayr’s Demonstrably True Observations and Resulting Inferences Population Genetics Modern Synthesis Populations Hardy-Weinberg Equation and Conditions Genotypic and Allelic Frequencies Genetic Drift o “Bottleneck Effect” o “Founder Effect” Natural Selection o Directional Selection o Stabilizing Selection o Diversifying Selection o Balancing Selection Mechanisms to Maintain Diversity Speciation Reproductive barriers o Prezygotic o Postzygotic Formation of new species Biological Species Concept Describe what happens in each of the following stages of the CELL CYCLE. List if it’s interphase or mitosis/meiosis. G1 Phase Interphase “Growth” or “Gap”; cell grows S Phase Interphase “Synthesis”; DNA replicates G2 Phase Interphase “Growth” or “Gap”; cell finishes growing M Phase Mitosis/Meiosis Cell divides Describe what happens in each of the following stages of MITOSIS. Prophase - Chromatin coils - mitotic spindle forms - Centrosomes move away from one another Prometaphase Metaphase - Nuclear envelope breaks down - kinetochores form on chromatids - microtubules from centrosome attach to kinetochore - chromosomes align on metaphase plate Anaphase - sister chromatids are pulled apart Telophase & Cytokinesis - nuclear envelope begins to form - chromosomes relax - division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis) Draw the cell in each of the following stages in each cycle. (continued on next page) Prophase Mitosis Look in book Prometaphase Metaphase Meiosis I Meiosis II Anaphase Mitosis Meiosis I Telophase Cytokinesis Meiosis II VOCABULARY TERMS Fill in the table. Term Histone Proteins Chromatin Centromere Centrosome Centriole Mitotic Spindle/ Spindle Apparatus Kinetochore Sister Chromatids Daughter Cells Definition from your notes/book Ch.12 Look in book Definition in your own words Benign Tumor Malignant Tumor Metastasis Ch. 13 Homologous Chromosomes Gametogenesis Pluripotent (in notes) Crossing Over Ch. 14 Genotype Phenotype Gene Allele Dominant Recessive Homozygous Heterozygous Monohybrid Ch. 25 Fitness Adaptation Ch. 26 Population Gene Pool Genetic Drift Locus Microevolution Fixed Allele Allelic Frequency Bottleneck Effect Founder Effect Directional Selection Stabilizing Selection Diversifying (disruptive) Selection Balancing Selection PEOPLE TO KNOW Fill in the table with what each scientist contributed to biology. Scientist What did he contribute? Carolus Linnaeus Jean Baptiste Lamark Thomas Malthus Did he have a theory? If so, what was it called? Binomial system (naming of organisms); hierarchical scheme (KPCOFGS) Inheritance of acquired traits; progressive evolution Population growth geometric; The Inevitable Result Alfred Russel Wallace Independently formulated the theory of evolution via natural selection; “All species come from pre-existing species” One of the founders of the Theory of Natural Selection Charles Robert Darwin The Origin of Species; credited for Evolution via Natural Selection Receives credit for Theory of Evolution via Natural Selection Ernst Mayr Gregor (Johann) Mendel Demonstrably True Observations; Resulting Inferences; Biological Species Concept Biological Species Concept Inheritance (used peas); Independent Assortment of Genes Darwin’s Postulates – state them in your own words 1 The individual organisms in a population vary in the traits they possess. 2 Some of the trait differences are heritable. 3 In each generation, many more offspring are produced than can possibly survive. 4 Organisms that survive and reproduce are not a random sample. Certain heritable traits are more likely to survive. Darwin’s Components of his Theory of Adaptive Evolution via Natural Selection – describe each in as much detail as possible, in your own words 1. Biological Species change through time. Decent with modification. Evidence: gradual Evolution change in fossils, artificial selection, human selection for specific traits, comparative anatomy, comparative embryology, biogeography, molecular biology 2. Natural Selection The force on mechanism during adaptive change. Through time, populations get better adapted to their local environment. Populations of the same species that are in different locations change in different ways. Demonstrably True Observations – describe each, in your own words #1 Individuals vary. #2 Much of this variation is hereditable. #3 There is excessive reproduction. #4 Resources are limited. Ernst Mayr’s Resulting Influences – describe each, in your own words 1 Not all offspring can survive 2 Survival is not random, but rather based off individual fitness. 3 Population characteristics change through time. Favorable traits will accumulate. Unfavorable traits become less abundant. Population becomes better adapted to local environment. Cell Cycle Checkpoints – name where they are and why they are important at those stages 1. G1 Phase “Restriction point.” Most important. Cell big enough? Environment favorable? 2. G2 Phase (sometimes referred to as S checkpoint) 3. Metaphase DNA replicated correctly? Cell big enough? Environment favorable? Are chromosomes aligned on metaphase plate? Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis Feature Number of cell divisions One Number of chromosomes in daughter cells compared to parent cells Number of crossing-over events Mitosis Meiosis Two Same Half None One or more per pair of homologous chromosomes Makeup of chromosomes in daughter cells Identical Different Role in organism life cycle Asexual reproduction in some eukaryotes; cell division for growth Reproduction - gametes In the space below, create a Punnett Square. Report the frequencies. P Generation: PP x pp P=Purple P=white Homozygous dominant: 0 Homozygous recessive: 0 Heterozygous: 4 or 100% Purple: 4 or 100% White: 0 F1 Generation: Pp x Pp P=Purple P=white Homozygous dominant: 1 or 25% Homozygous recessive: 1 or 25% Heterozygous: 2 or 50% Purple: 3 or 75% White: 1 or 25% P Generation: RRWW x rrww R=Red r=white Red/Wrinkled 16/16 Red/Round 0/16 White/Wrinkled 0/16 White/Round 0/16 Ratio: 16:0:0:0 W=wrinkled w=round F1 Generation: RrWw x RrWw R=Red r=white Red/Wrinkled 9/16 Red/Round 3/16 White/Wrinkled 3/16 White/Round 1/16 Ratio: 9:3:3:1 W=wrinkled w=round In the space below, calculate the frequencies using Hardy-Weinberg. 2 alleles for flower color: CR and Cr 49 plants have red flowers (CRCR) 42 plants have pink flowers (CRCr) 9 plants have white flowers (CrCr) All plants are diploid Allele frequency CR .7 Cr .3 Genotype frequency CRCR .49 CRCr .42 CrCr .09 Short Answer: 1.) What are the three important roles of cell division in eukaryotes? Reproduction, growth and development, and tissue repair 2.) What are Mendel and Darwin’s respective opinions on evolution? The units of evolution are genes – Mendel The mechanism of evolution is selection - Darwin 3.) Name the five conditions in which the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium must meet. Large population, no mutations, no migration, no natural selection, random mating 4.) What are the two problems with the Theory of Adaptive Evolution via Natural Selection? Why are these topics considered problems? Fossils – prove extinctions; plant and animal breeding – artificial selection for desirable traits 5.) Why can’t natural selection make “perfect” organisms? Evolution is limited, adaptations are often compromises, chance and naturals selection interact, and selection can only edit existing variations. 6.) Describe the relationship between gene pool, alleles, and loci. Alleles are all the possible traits. Loci are the specific locations on the chromosomes where the alleles are located. Gene pool is all the alleles for all the traits of a species together. 7.) How is evolution not a theory about the origin of life? Evolution simply explains the change over time, not the beginning of life. 8.) Is the Hardy-Weinberg Theorm realistic in the natural world? Why or why not? No. The five characteristics are almost impossible to meet together in the real world. 9.) What are the basis of the Modern Synthesis? Genetic variation in populations arise by chance through mutation and recombination. Evolution is the changes in allele frequencies between generations. Speciation occurs gradually when populations become genetically isolated. 10.) What are the three mechanisms that preserve genetic diversity? Describe each. Diploidy – can hide genetic diversity from selection as heterozygous; Heterozygote Advantage – heterozygotes at a locus have greater fitness than homozygotes; Neutral variation – genetic variation has little or no impact on reproductive success, change through genetic drift Multiple Choice 1.) ______________ is also known as reduction division. a. Mitosis b. Meiosis c. Fertilization d. Metastasis 2.) According to currently available information, humans evolved from fish. a. True b. False 3.) During _______________, the chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate. a. Prophase b. Prometaphase c. Metaphase d. Anaphase 4.) Tristan da Cunha, a British settlement, has an allele frequency for retinitis pigmentosa 10x greater than in England. This is an example of the a. Genetic Drift b. Bottleneck Effect c. Gene Flow d. Founder Effect 5.) Biological evolution is just a theory, and there are equally good alternatives. a. True b. False 6.) Meiosis occurs in the ____________, therefore the product of meiosis is _______________. a. Organs; organelles b. Entire body except gonads; somatic cells c. Skin; skin cells d. Gonads; gametes 7.) If all humans were to suddenly perish, apes would evolve into humans with time. a. True b. False 8.) During the process of binary fission, heritability occurs and genetic variability does not. a. True b. False 9.) Natural selection contains five different variations. These variations include all of the following except: a. Balancing selection b. Directional selection c. Diversifying selection d. Phenotypic selection 10.) DNA duplicates to form 2 ______________. A cell divides to produce 2 ________________. a. Daughter cells; sister chromatids b. Sister chromatids; daughter cells c. Centrosomes; centromeres d. Centromeres; centrosomes 11.) The purpose of mosquitos is a. To control excessive population growth by the animals the feed upon. b. To feed birds. c. To make more mosquitos. d. To disperse disease organisms. e. None of the above. 12.) In meiosis, the reduction of diploid to haploid occurs: a. After Prophase I, during Anaphase I b. After Metaphase I, during Anaphase I c. After Prometaphase II, during Metaphase II d. After Anaphase II, during Telophase II 13.) Being smarter and quicker, mammals hastened the extinction of the dinosaurs. a. True b. False 14.) These structures are what the spindle fibers attach to on the chromosomes: a. Centrosomes b. Kinetochores c. Microtubules d. Centromeres 15.) Natural selection acts on the ______________. a. Individual b. Population c. Environment d. Both a and c e. Both b and c 16.) Evolution is designed to produce greater perfection through time. a. True b. False 17.) Henry went to the doctor and was diagnosed with a benign tumor. This means the tumor will a. Not invade neighboring tissues. b. Spread through metastasis. c. Cannot be easily removed. d. Reach the blood vessels. 18.) Larger and more complex organisms have larger genomes. a. True b. False 19.) ____________ produces two identical daughter cells, while _____________ produces four cells with half the material as the parent. a. Mitosis; meiosis b. Oogenesis; spermatogenesis c. Meiosis; mitosis d. Spermatogenesis; oogenesis 20.) The idea that species evolve into other species through time is attributable to Charles Darwin. a. True b. False 21.) Interphase constitutes about a. 25% of the cell cycle b. 10% of the cell cycle c. 100% of the cell cycle d. 90% of the cell cycle 22.) If the environment changes, natural selection a. Favors new sets of phenotypes. b. Resists the creation of new phenotypes. c. Will kill off all organisms from old phenotypes. d. All the above. 23.) Evolution is directional and linear. a. True b. False 24.) Evolution occurs at the ________________. a. Individual level b. Population level c. Bacterial level d. None of the above 25.) Parent and daughter cells are clones. a. True b. False 26.) Which of the following is more highly evolved? a. Cockroach b. Human c. Neither d. Both are equally evolved