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Section 1: The Geosphere
Objectives:
 Describe the composition and structure of the Earth
 Describe the Earth’s tectonic plates
 Explain the main cause of earthquakes and their effects
 Identify the relationship between volcanic eruptions and climate change
 Describe how wind and water alter the Earth’s surface.
A. The Earth as a System
1. The Earth is an integrated system that consists of rock, air, water, and living things that all
interact with each other. Scientists divide this system into 4 parts:
a. geosphere (the rock) – r=6,378 km, d=12,756km at equator
b. atmosphere (air) – 1,000km above Earth’s surface (most gases we breathe in first
30km)
c. hydrosphere (water) – 29km – bottom of oceans to clouds in atmosphere
d. biosphere (living things) – total 20km – 9km above Earth’s surface to 11km down to
bottom of ocean
B. Discovering Earth’s Interior
2. Scientists can use seismic waves to learn about Earth’s interior. Seismic waves are the same
waves that travel through Earth’s interior during an earthquake.
3. Seismic waves change both speed and direction as they pass from one physical layer to
another.
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s=secondary wave
p=primary wave
4. Seismologists have learned that the Earth is made up of different layers and have inferred
what substances make up each layer.
5. P-waves are the fastest seismic waves and they can travel through any material in the
Earth’s interior.
6. S-waves move about half as fast as P-waves, and they can travel only through solids.
7. The composition of the Earth – Scientists divide the Earth into 3 layers based on
chemical composition:
a. crust – light elements (5-8km beneath ocean floor & 20-70km beneath continents)
b. mantle – rocks of medium density (2,900 km thick)
c. core – densest elements (r=3,400km)
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8. The structure of the Earth – The Earth can be divided into 5 layers based on the
physical properties of each layer:
a. lithosphere – 15-300km thick; tectonic plates located in this layer
b. asthenoshpere – 250km thick; plastic flowing layer allows tectonic plates to move
c. mesosphere – 2,550km thick
d. outer core – 2,200km thick; made of liquid Ni and Fe
e. inner core – r=1,228km; made of solid Ni and Fe
Chemical composition
Physical properties
C. Plate Tectonics
9. Divided pieces of the lithosphere are called tectonic plates.
They glide across the
underlying asthenosphere in much the same way as a chunk of ice drifts across a pond.
10. The 10 major tectonic plates are:
a. Pacific plate
b. North American plate
c. Cocos plate
d. Nazca plate
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e. South American plate
f. African plate
g. Eurasian plate
h. Indian plate
i. Australian plate
j. Antarctic plate
11. Much of the geologic activity at the surface of the Earth takes place at the boundaries
between tectonic plates.
12. Plates may separate from one another, collide with one another, or slip past one another.
13. The forces produced at the boundaries of tectonic plates can cause mountains to form,
earthquakes to shake the crust, and volcanoes to erupt.
14. Tectonic plates are continually moving around the Earth’s surface.
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15. When plates collide, the crust becomes thicker and eventually forms mountain ranges.
D. Earthquakes
16. Earthquakes are occurring all of the time, but many are so small that we cannot feel them.
17. Scientist measure the magnitude of the energy released during an earthquake using the
Richter scale.
18. Smallest magnitude that can be felt is 2.0 and the largest recorded is 9.5.
19. Widespread damage is caused at magnitudes of 7.0 and greater.
20. Where do earthquakes occur and why?
The largest and most active earthquake zones lie along tectonic plate boundaries because of
the enormous stresses that are generated when tectonic plates separate, collide, or slip past
each other.
21. San Andreas Fault in California is where parts of the North American plate and the Pacific
plate are slipping past one another.
22. An area’s earthquake-hazard level is determined by past and present seismic activity.
23. Earthquakes are not restricted to high–risk areas.
24. Earthquake-resistant buildings are slightly flexible so that they can sway with the ground
motion.
E. Volcanoes
25. Volcanoes are often located near tectonic plate boundaries where plates are either colliding
or separating from an one another.
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26. The majority of the world’s active volcanoes on land are located along tectonic plate
boundaries that surround the Pacific Ocean (The Ring of Fire).
27. What are some local effects of volcanic eruptions?
Volcanic eruptions can be devastating to local economies and can cause great human loss.
Clouds of hot ash, dust and gases can flow down a volcanoes slope causing mudflow which
cause buildings to collapse, crops to be buried, and engines to be damaged. Ash can also
cause breathing difficulties.
28. What are some global effects of volcanic eruptions?
Major volcanic eruptions can change the Earth’s climate for several years. As ash and gases
spread across the planet’s atmosphere, they can reduce the amount of sunlight that reaches
the Earth’s surface, dropping the average global surface temperature.
F. Erosion
29. Rocks on the Earth’s surface are continually battered by wind and scoured by running
water, which moves rocks around and changes their appearance.
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30. Erosion wears down rocks and makes them smoother as time passes.
31. This information helped geologists learn that the round-topped Appalachian Mountains in
the eastern United States are older than the jagged Rocky Mountains in the west.
32. Examples of water erosion are:
a. waves from ocean storms erode coastlines
b. rivers carve deep gorges into the landscape
33. Wind erosion occurs more often where there are few plants like beaches and deserts. Soft
rocks like sandstone erode more easily than hard rocks like granite.
34. Definitions:
a. geosphere : the mostly solid, rocky part of the Earth; extends from the center of the
core to the surface of the crust
b. crust: the thin and solid outermost layer of the Earth above the mantle, made up of
lighter elements
c. mantle: in Earth science, the layer of rock between the Earth’s crust and core; makes
up 64% of the mass of the Earth
d. lithosphere: the solid, outer layer of the Earth that consists of the crust and the rigid
upper part of the mantle
e. asthenosphere: the solid, plastic layer of the mantle beneath lithosphere; made of
mantle rock that flows very slowly, which allows tectonic plates to move on top of it
f. mesosphere: lower layer of the mantle between the asthenosphere and the outer
core.
g. core: the central part of the Earth below the mantle, composed of denser elements
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h. outer core: outer shell of Earth’s core made up of liquid nickel and iron
i. inner core: at the center of the Earth, made up of solid nickel
j. Pangaea: the name of the super continent; Greek for “all Earth”, 245 million years
ago, almost all the land on Earth was joined into one supercontinent. A world ocean
called Panthalassa, “all sea”, surrounded it.
k. tectonic plates: a block of lithosphere that consists of the crust and the rigid,
outermost part of the mantle; similar to chunk of ice drifts in a pond found in the
lithosphere
l. fault: a break in the Earth’s crust along which blocks of crust slide relative to one
another
m. earthquake: the vibration caused when rocks under stress suddenly break along a
fault.
n. Richter scale: used by scientists to quantify the amount of energy released by an
earthquake
o. magnitude: the amount of energy released by an earthquake
p. volcano: mountain built from magma (melted rock) that rises from the Earth’s
interior to the surface
q. Ring of Fire: area that contains 75% of the world’s active volcanoes in Pacific Ocean
r. erosion: a process in which the materials of the Earth’s surface are loosened,
dissolved, or worn away and transported from one place to another by a natural
agent, such as wind, water, ice, or gravity
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Section 2: The Atmosphere
Objectives:
 Describe the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere
 Describe the layers of the Earth’s atmosphere
 Explain three mechanisms of heat transfer in Earth’s atmosphere
 Explain the greenhouse effect
1. Definitions:
a. atmosphere: a mixture of gases that surrounds a planet, such as Earth
b. troposphere: the lowest layer of the atmosphere, in which temperature drops at a
constant rate as altitude increases; the part of the atmosphere where weather
conditions exist
c. stratosphere: the layer of the atmosphere, that lies immediately above the
troposphere and extends from about 10 to 50 km above the earth’s surface, in which
temperature increases as altitude increases; contains the ozone layer
d. ozone: a gas molecule that is made up of three oxygen atoms
e. radiation: the energy that is transferred as electromagnetic waves, such as visible
light and infrared waves
f. conduction: the transfer of energy as heat through a material
g. convection: the movement of matter due to differences in density that are caused by
temperature variations; can result in the transfer of energy as heat
h. greenhouse effect: the warming of the surface and lower atmosphere of Earth that
occurs when carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases in the air absorb and
reradiate infrared radiation
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2. The Atmosphere
a. The Earth is surrounded by a mixture of gases known as the atmosphere.
b. Earth’s atmosphere is constantly changing as gases are added and removed.

Example: Animals remove oxygen when they breathe in and add carbon dioxide
when they breathe out. Plants take in carbon dioxide and add oxygen when they
produce food. Volcanic eruptions add gases. Vehicles add and remove gases.
c. Our atmosphere insulates the Earth’s surface by keeping temperatures at levels
which enables living things to survive.
3. Composition of the Atmosphere
a. Nitrogen – 78% – It enters the atmosphere when volcanoes erupt and when dead
plants and animals decay
b. Oxygen – 21% – It is primary produced by plants.
c. Trace Gases – 1% – The other gases include argon, carbon dioxide, methane, and
water vapor.
d. Also contains tiny particles called atmospheric dust. It is mainly composed of soil
but includes volcanic ash, salt, ash from fires, and particulate matter (bits of skin,
hair, bits of clothing, pollen, bacteria, viruses)
e. Also contains liquid droplets called aerosols. Aerosols damage the ozone layer.
4. Air Pressure
a. The Earth has gravity. This gravity pulls things toward the surface of Earth, which
makes the air denser near the Earth’s surface.
b. As elevation increases, air becomes less dense.
c. As elevation increases, breathing becomes more difficult.
d. Higher in the atmosphere, air molecules are pulled apart.
e. Lower in the atmosphere, air molecules are pushed together.
5. Layers of the Atmosphere
a. The Earth is divided into 4 layers based on temperatures:
Troposphere,
Stratosphere, Mesosphere, and Thermosphere. The Exosphere (outer space) is after
the Thermosphere.
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6. Troposphere:
a. Closest layer to the Earth’s surface
b. Almost all weather occurs in this layer
c. Densest atmospheric layer
d. As altitude increases, temperatures decrease
7. Stratosphere:
a. Above the troposphere
b. As altitude increases, temperatures increase
c. Ozone layer is located in the stratosphere.
 Ozone (O3) – molecules made up of 3 oxygen atoms
 The ozone layer reduces the amount of UV B rays reaching Earth because the
ozone layer absorbs the UV rays from the sun which accounts for the increase
temperature in this layer.
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 UV B rays damage living cells and causes cancer.
8. Mesosphere:
a. layer above the stratosphere
b. coldest layer of atmosphere
9. Thermosphere:
a. farthest from the Earth’s surface
b. nitrogen and oxygen absorb solar radiation
c. high temperatures (2000oC)
d. air is very thin and particles rarely collide
e. Ionosphere is located in the lower thermosphere.
 It has electrically charged atoms called ions
 Ions radiate energy as light, creating the spectacular colors in the night skies
at the polar regions called aurora borealis and aurora australis
 Broken into 3 regions: D, E, F
1. D and E regions reflect AM radio waves.
2. F region reflects radio waves with shorter frequencies.
3. FM radio and television are transmitted through satellites because
their waves are too short to be reflected by the ionosphere.
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10. Energy in the Atmosphere :

Energy is transferred into Earth’s atmosphere by 3 mechanisms:
a. Radiation : the energy that is transferred across space and the atmosphere (ex: heat
from a fire or bed of coals)
b. Conduction: the transfer of energy as heat from a warmer object to a colder object
when placed in direct physical contact
c. Convection: transfer of energy as heat by air currents (ex: heat rises)
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11. Heating of the Atmosphere
a. Solar energy reaches the Earth as electromagnetic radiation.
b. Electromagnetic radiation (light) includes 3 types: visible light, infrared radiation,
and ultraviolet light
c. Sun releases a vast amount of radiation but our planet only receives about twobillionths of this energy.
d. Only about ½ of the solar energy that enters our atmosphere will reach the Earth’s
surface because the rest of the energy is absorbed or reflected in the atmosphere by
clouds, gases, and dust, or it is reflected by the Earth’s surface.
e. The Earth’s surface does not continually get warmer because the oceans and land
radiate the energy they have absorbed back into the atmosphere.
f. Substances with dark colors get hotter than substances with lighter colors because
dark colors absorb more solar radiation than light colors. Thus dark colored objects
have more energy to release as heat.
12. The Movement of Energy in the Atmosphere
a. Air is constantly moving up or down; side to side
b. Movement of air causes Earth’s weather
c. Troposphere: Currents of less dense air rise into the atmosphere and begin to cool.
As the air currents remain in the atmosphere, they become more dense and cool.
Then the air sinks down and begins to heat up once again by the Earth’s surface. The
cycle begins again - rising and sinking.
d. The process of air rising and sinking is
called convection current.
 Cool air is heavy and sinks to the
Earth’s surface.
 Air is then heated by Earth’s
surface and rises.
 Convection currents are caused
as air rises, then falls.
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13. The Greenhouse Effect is the warming of the surface and lower atmosphere of Earth that
occurs when carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases in the air absorb and reradiate
infrared radiation.
a. The gases in Earth’s atmosphere acts like a windshield in a car.
 The gases in the atmosphere act like a layer of glass. Both glass and the gases
in the atmosphere allow solar energy to pass through. But glass and some of
the gases in the atmosphere absorb the radiant energy turning it to heat and
stop the heat from escaping out of the car or into space. This results in
increased temperature inside the car or on Earth’s surface.
b. Solar energy (sunlight) penetrates the Earth’s atmosphere and heats the Earth.
Some of the heat radiates back into the Earth’s atmosphere; some of the gas escapes
into space; then some of the gases are absorbed and heats the surface close to the
Earth.
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Section 3: The Hydrosphere and Biosphere
Objectives:
 Name the three major processes in the water cycle
 Describe the properties of ocean water
 Describe the two types of ocean currents
 Explain how the ocean regulates Earth’s temperature
 Discuss the factors that confine life to the biosphere
 Explain the difference between open and closed systems
1. Definitions:
a. Water cycle: the continuous movement of water from the ocean to the atmosphere
to the land and back to the ocean
b. Evaporation: the change of a substance from a liquid to a gas
c. Condensation: the change of state from a gas to a liquid
d. Precipitation: any form of water that falls to the Earth’s surface from the clouds;
includes rain, snow, sleet, and hail
e. Salinity: a measure of the amount of dissolved salts in a given amount of liquid
f. Fresh water: water that contains insignificant amounts of salts, as in rivers and lakes
g. Biosphere: the part of Earth where life exists
h. Closed system: a system that cannot exchange matter or energy with its
surroundings
i. Open system: a system that can exchange both matter and energy with its
surroundings
2. The Hydrosphere and Water Cycle
o Water from Earth’s oceans, lakes,
streams, and soil is heated by the sun
and then rises into the atmosphere
during evaporation.
o Water vapor forms water droplets
during condensation, which form
clouds.
o Large droplets fall from clouds during precipitation in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or
hail.
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3. Earth’s Oceans
a. The Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic Oceans are interconnected into a single body
of water, the world ocean, which covers 70% of Earth’s surface.
Arctic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Atlantic
Ocean
Indian
Ocean
b. Pacific Ocean
1. largest
2. deepest – Mariana Trench at Challenger Deep point – 11,033 m below sea
level (which is deeper than Mt. Everest is tall)
3. surface currents counterclockwise in southern hemisphere; clockwise in
northern hemisphere
c. Atlantic Ocean
1. second largest
2. half the size of the Pacific Ocean
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3. surface currents counterclockwise in southern hemisphere; clockwise in
northern hemisphere
d. Indian Ocean
1. third largest
2. surface currents counterclockwise because in southern hemisphere
e. Arctic Ocean
1. smallest
2. unique because much of its surface is covered by floating ice called pack ice
which forms when either waves or wind drive together frozen sea ice into a
large mass
4. Ocean Water
a. The difference between ocean water and fresh water is that ocean water contains
more salts.
b. The salts have dissolved out of rocks on land and been carried down rivers into the
ocean over millions of years.
c. Underwater volcanic eruptions
also add salts to the oceans.
d. Most of oceans salt is sodium
chloride (NaCl).
e. The salinity of ocean water is the
concentration of all the dissolved
salts it contains.
f. Average salinity is 3.5 percent by
weight (~35ppt)
5. Temperature Zones
a. Water in the ocean can be divided into three zones based on temperature.
1. Surface Zone – warm, top layer of ocean water; 100m heated by sunlight;
surface currents mix heated water with cooler water below
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2. Thermocline – about 300-700m below surface zone; temperature drops
rapidly with depth
3. Deep Zone - bottom of thermocline to ocean bottom; temperature averages
slightly above freezing, 2oC
6. A Global Temperature Regulator
a. One of the most important functions of the world ocean is to absorb and store energy
from sunlight. It regulates temperatures in the Earth’s atmosphere.
b. Over half the solar radiation that reaches the planet’s surface is absorbed by the
world ocean.
c. The ocean both absorbs and releases heat more slowly than land does.
d. If the ocean did not regulate atmospheric and surface temperatures, the temperature
would be too extreme for life on Earth to exist.
e. Due to its moderating effect on the climate of Western Europe, the Gulf Stream is
one of the most important currents in the global ocean. It moves warm waters from
lower latitudes toward higher latitudes without mixing with cold water or losing its
heat
7. Ocean Currents
a. Surface currents are streamlike movements of water that occur at or near the surface
of the ocean.
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1. are wind driven
2. result from global wind patterns
b. Deep currents are streamlike movements of water that flow very slowly along the
ocean floor.
1. form when cold, dense water from the poles sinks below warmer, less dense
ocean water and flows toward the equator
2. densest and coldest water is located off coast of Antarctica
3. Antarctic Bottom Water – takes several hundred years for water in this deep
current to creep thousands of kilometers north to 40o north latitude
8. Fresh Water
a. Three percent of all water on Earth is fresh water.
b. Most fresh water is locked up in icecaps and glaciers.
c. The rest of Earth’s fresh water is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, rock layers
below the surface, and in the atmosphere.
9. River Systems
a. A river system is a network of streams that drains an area of land.
b. It includes all the land drained by a river, the main river, and all its tributaries.
c. Tributaries are smaller streams or rivers that flow into larger ones.
d. Largest river system in United States is the Mississippi River system. Most of the
precipitation that falls between the Rocky Mountains in the west and the
Appalachian Mountains in the east eventually drains into the Mississippi River.
10. Groundwater
a. Rain and melting snow sink into the ground and run off the land ending up in
streams and rivers, but most trickle down through the ground and collects as
groundwater.
b. Groundwater fulfills the human need for fresh drinking water and supplies water for
many agricultural and industrial uses.
c. accounts for <1% of all water on Earth
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11. Aquifers
a. A rock layer that stores and allows the flow of groundwater is called an aquifer.
b. The surface of the land where water enters an aquifer is called recharge zone.
12. The Biosphere
a. Earth is often compared to an apple and the biosphere is compared to the apple’s
skin. It is the thin layer where life exists.
1. Make up of Biosphere

uppermost part of the geosphere

most of the hydrosphere

lower part of the atmosphere
2. Factors required for life to exist on Earth

requires liquid water

temperatures between 10oC and 40oC

a source of energy
b. Gravity allows the Earth to maintain an atmosphere for survival and to cycle
materials.
c. Biosphere is located near the Earth’s surface because most of the sunlight is available
near surface.
1. Plants need sunlight to produce food and almost all organisms get food from
plants and algae.
2. Phytoplankton are the tiny, free-floating, marine algae at the surface of the
ocean.
3. Most of the organisms that live deep in the ocean feed on dead plants and
animals that drift down from the surface.
13. Energy Flow in the Biosphere
a. Energy is constantly added to the biosphere by the sun, but matter is not.
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b. When an organism dies, its body is broken down and the nutrients in it become
available for other organisms to exist.
1. Earth is mostly a Closed System

Energy is constantly entering the atmosphere but matter does not.
2. But an Open System for energy

In an open system, both matter and energy are exchanged and
constantly coming into an environment.
a. Originally matter was brought to Earth through the collisions of
comets and meteorites with our planet.
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