Download oriental perspective - Philosophy of Human Person

Buddhism
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Oriental Perspectives I
Place of Origin: India
History: Sakyamuni (563 -483 BC, sage of the Sakya clan), Siddhartha Gautama's
tribal name, was born in northeast India (Nepal). It is believed that he meditated
for 49 days under a Bodi tree [“tree of wisdom”] until his “awakening”. Hence, the
term “Buddha”-“the one who woke up.”
Background: Hindu Beliefs
Text/Scriptures: Vedas [Sanskrit `knowledge’]- include the
1. Brahmanas = prose commentaries of the Vedas concerned with the
interpretation of the sacrificial liturgy.
2. Upanishads (to sit near)= Sacred
Sanskrit Text that represents the basic tenets of Hindu thought. It contains
speculative ideas about the ultimate nature of reality as expressed in the terms –
Brahman, atman, samsara, karma, and moksha.
A central philosophical idea of Upanishads : there is one single unifying principle
underlying the entire universe [called Brahman], and that the world of multiplicity
is one of interconnected unity. In other words, everything is radically interconnect
ed [overall theme of the Upanishad].
Terms/concepts relating to Human Person: Brahman (Sanskrit, grow/expand/
increase) is the ultimate reality and absolute ground of all beings.. . It is the
unchanging reality that transcends space, time, causality and all particular things.
It is the power that animates everything or sustains the whole cosmos. Only
Brahman is real, and the individual souls and the universe are illusory [Maya]
manifestations of Brahman.
Atman= the true self of each person is identical with Brahman. It is the essence of
man rooted in the divine absolute; derives its essence from the eternal.
Hinduism believes in reincarnation and eternity of the self/soul.
Life's goal is to achieve Moksha [liberation / release from the cycle of rebirths =
Nirvana. This is the highest of ends, surpassing pleasure, wealth, as all other
things. Accordingly, no soul is eternally damned.
Karma, - the law of sowing and reaping, determines the form that will be taken in
each new existence.. This is the law of cause and effect. Men determine his destiny
through his conduct [this is the way to achieve moksha] An evil life leads to
rebirth as a sub-Human creature; while good life leads to more favoured existence
or to ultimate liberation from the rounds of rebirths. Hence the Moral structure of
the universe is the ground of the doctrine of Karma and Rebirth.
-2Related to the goal of liberation and perfection to needs and tasks of daily life are
the life of Meditation (hermitage, where as adult person seeks illumination in the
forest) and the Spiritual stage (union with Brahman) - man's inner spirit is the
focus of attention; seeking spiritual release (moksha). A very important value
include Ahimsa - non-violence/non-injury to living things, compassion, rejection
of worldly attachment, simplicity, humility, and courage.
Human Nature The essential self of human being is radically connected to all
beings. The ultimate self, atman, is part of all interrelated network of reality.
Atman is two aspects: self as ego identified with the body and environment. It is
the ordinary self. The essential self is atman, immortal and unchanging self.
A central teaching of the Upanishads is that the true self is that external aspect of
reality that is somehow not different from the highest reality of Brahman. In sum,
one’s essential self transcends individuality, limitation, suffering and death.
Terms to Remember: Brahman, karma, moksha, atman, nirvana, ahimsa, Caste
members, Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmanas, Maya, samsara
--------------------Buddhism rejects the Vedic Scripture and the concept of Brahman and Atman but
retains the Law of Karma and Rebirth. The Buddha (Enlightened One) rejected the
authority ascribed to the ancient gods and urged men to rely mainly on the
resources within themselves. He also rejected caste system since wisdom rather
than rebirth is important.. Constant change, finiteness, and suffering impressed
the Buddha.
Basic Tenets 1. All phenomenal (conditioned) realities are impermanent/transcient
Whatever exists, including man, changes. Hence there is no permanent reality
2. There is no soul or permanent self.
3. Human Person has 2 categories: A.. Nama = name/mind/psychological or
mental aspect of human beings. B.. Rupa = form/ matter /body /physical
aspect.. Human beings then are called Nama-Rupa -> man as psycho-physical
being that constitute a person as distinct individual. Both nama-rupa are interdependent [belong to each other] One can't exists without the other.
Individual has 3 characteristic: 1. dukkha = suffering 2. anicca = impermanence
3. anatta = absence of eternal self. The anatta doctrine implies that living beings
have no eternal soul and that there is no cosmic self.
-3The Buddhist Noble Truth 1. The existence of suffering seen in experiences of
childbirth, illness, failure to satisfy desires, separation from loved ones, old age, or
death. 2. Suffering is caused by tanha (selfish desires) originally literally "thirst".
3. Possibility of the release - if one can gain enlightenment, the wheel of existence
may be ended and Nirvana (salvation) gained. 4. There is a way out through the
noble Eightfold path. Monastic life is necessary for nirvana. {in sum, doing things
that have important spiritual value}
Duties of the Laity bans 1. killing (animals) 2. stealing 3. Wrong sexual
relation 4. Wrong use of speech [lying, malicious gossip] 5. consumption of
alcohol/drugs. Monks must be celibate, rejects property, and have self control
through meditation.
Terms to Remember: Nama-rupa, dukhha, anatta, anicca, tanha, Buddha
------------------------------------Confucianism
Place of Origin: China
Founder: K’ung Fu-Tzu (L. for Confucius) 551-479 bce., moral philosopher.
Text: Lun Yu ( translated as “The Analects) is most reliable source of his ideas.
Basic Concepts relating to Man 1. Heaven: Moral laws inherent in the universe;
sense of ultimate goodness necessary for excellent lives. Not much to do with gods.
2. Mandate of Heaven: Moral sanction granted to a ruler which include benefit
and duties. Authority and social force are the benefits of a good ruler. Rulers are
generally expected to rule not for self interest but in the inter of the people. Also
included is ritual/ceremonies performance by a ruler for the purpose of community
unity and identity.
3. Tao: “way” or ‘path’. For Taoist, the way of nature. {may be actualized by the
Taoist paradoxical statement,, “do nothing and everything shall be done”evolution rather than revolution. The first is nature’s way; the second Man’s way.
This has significant implications for our environmental problems. Let nature takes
its course; don’t interfere with it –less you court disaster and misery}. For others,
this is the way of morality. But for Confucius, the Tao meant “the way of the
sages”, the ancient rulers of ideal times whose lives and words can be models for
the present.. He said: The gentlemen stand in awe of things: he is in awe of the
Decree of Heaven; in awe of great men, and in awe of the words of the sages.”
-44. Yin and Yang: opposing components of all things in nature and society.
Yin =female principle=weak, passive, destructive
Yang = male principle=strong, active, constructive. Each person has a light and a
dark side of his/her life. And so are the relationships composed of these principles.
5. Filial Piety: Love for parents. The root of all virtues. Respect for fathers and
older members of the family, even for ancestors has been a powerful force
throughout Chinese history
The concept of Jen is central to Confucianism. It means human heartedness,
virtue of perfect humanity, love, and kindness. Jen is that which distinguishes
man from animals and such virtues as reciprocity (shu), loyalty (chung), honesty
(xin), and courage are expressions of it..
Theory of the Universe. Confucius main concern is humanism [ i,e, with basic
human welfare] rather than metaphysics. When asked about gods and spirits, he
said “You are not able even to serve men,. How can you serve the spirits?
Consequently, the focus of attention must be on the question of morality or ethical
conduct.
Two forces in the universe that may determine human life: Decree of Heaven and
Destiny. The first was originally for the rulers but later extended to everyone. The
second seems like fate that is beyond human understanding such as one’s place in
life, success, wealth, longevity.
The difference between these two is important for Confucius. But the mandate of
heaven which implies morality [which has nothing to do with success] should be
the ultimate goal worthy of pursuit in life
Theory of Human Nature..
1.. Human beings are fundamentally the same, i.e. similar moral nature . .
2. He believed that every person is potentially a sage, is able to actualize the
mandate of Heaven. Hence a person should strive to be superior man, renounce
worldly lusts, becomes a courteous person. A person exhibits integrity of mind by
being honest with himself and with others; sincere in speech and action and
moderate in all things; must avoid avarice, [strong desire for wealth]
quarrelsomeness, covetousness, delight in others; moderation and strives for the
"golden mean".
3.. He also believed that human nature is essentially social and that the tendency to
do good or evil is largely influenced by the social environment.
4. He also spoke of “free will” in some areas of life, those not covered by Destiny.
Hence we are free to either accept or reject the ethical conduct of life.
Ethics: Primary goal of Confucian ethics is to develop harmonious social order by
means of external government. Confucius sayings: What you do not want done to
yourself, do not do to others.
Basic Moral terminology of Confucius:
Jen= benevolence, charity, humanity, love, and kindness.
Yi =right conduct, morality, duty to one's neighbour; maybe broken down into:
zhong= loyalty shu = reciprocity. Li=- profit, gain, advantage. Xiao=- filial
piety. Love for parents. Sincerity - Not just a casual relationship. Propriety –
[culturally accepted behaviour] Encompasses the whole spectrum of human
conduct.
Diagnosis: selfishness and ignorance make the human condition problematic.
In the Analects, Confucius states the causes: 1. profit 2. Lack of respect for filial
piety
3. connection between word and action cant be trusted. Theory/action
4. prevailing ignorance of the Way of the Sages
5. absence of benevolence in human affairs. This last is the central concept
expressed in Jen which implies harmony in human relationships. The Chinese
character is represented consisting of two parts: human and two, meaning two
people standing together in harmony.