Download File

Group Deal 1
Learning Theories
Learning theories developed as a result of scientific speculation of learning with a
hypothesized rationale. Overtime, learning theories have moved from educated hypotheses to
more scientific anatomical view. Six learning theories including behaviorism, cognitivism,
social cognitivism, humanism, constructivism, and brain-based learning are discussed below.
Behaviorism
Beginning in the late 19th century, scientists began looking at changing basic
behavior. Behavioral theories defined learning as a change in the method or frequency of a
behavior due to some interaction with the outer environment. Pavlov, Thorndike, and Skinner’s “
work focused on learning as behavior change developed through external conditioning and
reinforcement” (Oermann, 2015, p. 17).
Pavlov worked with classical conditioning by presenting a dog with meat, which resulted
in the dog salivating; simultaneously, a metronome ticked in the background. Over time, this
process resulted in the dog becoming conditioned to the metronome and began to salivate upon
hearing it click, even when meat wasn’t presented. Classical conditioning is a process in which
an unconditioned stimulus brings about an unconditioned response (Oermann, 2015, p. 17).
Edward Thorndike is known for his work on learning, individual differences, intelligence,
and transfer of knowledge. Consequently, he developed psychological connectionism. He
hypothesized that learning is the formulation of connections between sensory stimuli and neural
impulses that are identified through behavior. He also thought that learning often occurred
through the process of trial and error (Oermann, 2015, p. 17).
B.F. Skinner postulated the theory of operant conditioning. Skinner believed that the best
way to understand behavior was to examine the causes of an action and its consequences, which
Group Deal 1
he termed operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is changing behavior by using
reinforcement that follows the desired response. There are two types of reinforcement. Positive
reinforcement focuses on strengthening a behavior by providing a consequence an individual
finds rewarding. The removal of an unpleasant reinforce can also strengthen behavior. Negative
reinforcement focuses on strengthening behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant
experience. Punishment inhibits behavior and is the opposite of reinforcement, as it is designed
to eliminate a response (Oermann, 2015, p. 17).
Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding
human behavior and that they do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods,
thoughts, and feelings. Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning especially
learning that occurs without the use of reinforcement. People and animals are able to adapt their
behavior when new information is introduced, even if a previous behavior pattern has been
established through reinforcement. Behaviorism is based upon observable behaviors, so it is
easier to quantify and collect data and information when conducting research (About, n.d).
Cognitivism & Social Cognitivism
Cognitive theory concentrates on the internal processing and connections that take place
during learning; there are many contributors to this theory including Piaget, Vygotsky, and
Bruner. The cognitive approach focuses on making knowledge meaningful and helping learners
organize and relate information to prior knowledge in memory (Yilmaz, 2011). There are
multiple aspects of the cognitivism theory. This learning process uses instruction, organizing,
and storing of information obtained. Social cognitivism is an expansion of cognitivism that
includes social-cultural cognition (Oermann, 2015, p. 18). A positive implication of the in
teaching is that this teaching method allows teaching to be tailored to the needs, interests, and
Group Deal 1
backgrounds of the students (Yilmaz, 2011). This method enhances the learning process for both
student and teacher. This teaching method emphasizes on the active involvement of the learner
in the learning process, which is imperative in nursing education. A negative implication in
teaching is the teacher would be expected to provide a rich classroom experience that would
foster a child’s spontaneous exploration (Yilmaz, 2011). Using this theory in teaching also
requires the teacher to have multiple instructional options available to learners and alter the
teaching methods according to the learner’s characteristics. With the nursing educator shortage,
teachers may have not have ability to specialize teaching plans for each student.
Humanism
Humanistic theory combines both cognitive and affective learning (Oermann, 2015). It
surfaced in the 1960s with emphasis on goal attainment, “human freedom, dignity, and potential”
(Huitt, 2009). Humanism is holistic and believes that behaviors change as people grow and
develop over a lifetime. The individual is the catalyst for the degree of motivation and for the
degree of goal attainment (Huitt, 2009). Two well know humanists are Abraham Maslow and
Carl Rogers. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory postulates that actions are dependent on a
five-tier hierarchy of human need. The first four tiers are called deprivation needs and must be
met before self-actualization, the final tier of reaching one’s potential, can be achieved. The
prerequisites to self-actualization are, in order of attainment, physiological needs, safety needs,
belongingness, and esteem (Oermann, 2015). Carl Rogers agreed with Maslow adding that for
continued growth people “need an environment that provides genuineness, acceptance, and
empathy” (Oermann, 2015). In his article, Huitt (2009) says there are five objectives in the
humanistic view to education: promoting self-direction and independence; developing
accountability for learning; developing creativity; promoting curiosity; and maintaining an
Group Deal 1
interest in the arts. Humanistic teaching methods include participation projects and discovery
methods (Oermann, 2015). Carl Roger’s, Facilitative Teaching, also incorporates: response to
feelings; praise; discussion and dialogue; and smiling (Huitt, 2015). Critics of the humanism
theory point to Maslow and the “vagueness of what is considered a deficiency” (Huitt, 2015)
stating that these deprivation needs are not universal. “It has been observed that an individual
may permanently lose the higher wants in the hierarchy under special conditions” (Maslow,
1943, p. 394) “for example, some people often risk their own safety to rescue others from
danger” (Huitt, 2015). On the other hand, Huitt (2015) cites Aspy and Roebuck (1977) who
found that students with facilitative teachers: miss less school; have increased scores on selfawareness tests; have greater gains in academic achievements; have fewer discipline issues; and
have higher thinking abilities (Huitt, 2015).
Constructivism
Constructivism theory, influenced by the work of Dewey and Vygotsky, encourages
learners to build their own body of knowledge based on individual experience and to apply this
knowledge directly to their environment. The constructivist’s perspective indicates that the
educator plays the role of facilitator, while the learner’s role is one of constructing reality
through interactions with the environment. Constructivism espouses students are to: be active in
the learning environment; develop social and interpersonal skills; enjoy learning; have an
understanding of the content being taught; and learn to think in an efficient manner. According
to constructivism theory, nurse educators have an essential role in facilitating an environment
suitable for problem-solving activities and the social process of learning. Three factors of
importance for creating an effective teaching–learning environment are: (1) enhancing active
learning (2) facilitating social interaction and (3) creating quality-learning materials. The
Group Deal 1
strength of the cognitive theory is by having students coming to the knowledge how to think, it
enhances students’ decision-making with real-world issues, and facilitates the development of
social and interpersonal skills (Kala, Isaramalai & Pothang, 2010). Currently the educational
environment emphasizes the need for student-centered learning; constructivism is a theoretical
foundation that supports a transforming from teacher-centered to a learner-centered environment
(Kala et al., 2010). Weakness: The learner learns a way to accomplish a specific task but it may
not necessarily be the best way and the learning process might take longer than a rigid
term/course allows.
Brain-Based Learning
Brain-based learning has vastly changed and developed with a plethora of knowledge
taking route within the last 20 years. “Brain-based learning is the active engagement of
purposeful strategies based on principles derived from an understanding of the brain” (Oermann,
2015, p. 20). Essentially, it is exactly as it sounds: learning based on our knowledge of the brain.
Learning changes our brain by increasing the density of cellular material through an intricate
process of signaling cortical neurons; the density changes are noted only in the areas of the brain
that are stimulated (Oermann, 2015, p. 20). There are several different teaching strategies that
are based around concepts of brain-based learning. A few strategies include pre-exposing
learners to material a week before teaching it, teaching less content in deeper depth, providing
frequent and nonjudgmental feedback during class, empowering students and providing a safe
environment for risk taking (Oermann, 2015, p. 21). The strengths of this theory revolve around
the fact that researchers can see how people learn and watch brain activity as learning happens.
By doing this, they can cut out ineffective methods simply by watching brain activity. A
weakness in this learning theory is that individuals are different in many ways, including their
Group Deal 1
learning methods; this theory could lead to more standardized teaching methods.
Findings and Application to Education
As the previous discussion suggests, the theories vary vastly and focus on different
topics. In Behaviorism learners are passive, responding to stimuli, while in cognitivism learners
process, store and retrieve information, creating a knowledge set. Constructivist and humanist
learning approach is more learner-centered than in Behaviorism and Cognitivism. Dr. David
Kolb presented another framework that is widely used in nursing education and is worth
mentioning (Lisko & O’Dell, 2010). Dr. Kolb views learning as a process and attempts to meet
the needs of all learning styles. His influence, in nursing education, is highlighted by the use of
moderate-fidelity manikins (Lisko & O’Dell, 2010).
Educators should be aware of all theories and implement them based on the needs of each
student. Different theories have their own strengths and weaknesses. Instructional strategies
should be based on desired learning outcome and learners' prior knowledge, experience and
interests. When teaching basic nursing procedures direct instructions may be more efficient than
social-constructive approaches, but when the learning objective is to have nursing students
analyze, interpret and apply information, constructivist approaches are more appropriate.
Group Deal 1
References:
About (n.d.). What is behaviorism? Retrieved June 13, 2014, from
http://psychology.about.com/od/behavioralpsychology/f/behaviorism.htm
Huitt, W. (2009). Humanism and open education. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta,
GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from:
http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/affect/humed.html
Kala, S., Isaramalai, S., & Pohthong, A. (2010). Electronic learning and constructivism: A model
for nursing education. Nurse Education Today, 3061-66. doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2009.06.002
Learning Theories Website (2014). Summaries of learning theories and models. Retrieved
from: http://www.learning-theories.com/humanism.html
Lisko, S. A. and O’Dell, V. (2010). Integration of theory and practice: Experiential learning
theory and nursing education. Nursing Education Perspectives, 19(1), p. 88-104.
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, p. 370-396.
Oermann, Marilyn. (2015). Teaching in Nursing and Role of the Educator. Springer Publishing
Company. New York, NY.
Yilmaz, K. (2011). The Cognitive Perspective on Learning: Its Theoretical Underpinnings and
Implications for Classroom Practices. Clearing House, 84(5), 204.
doi:10.1080/00098655.2011.568989