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Chapter 8
The Appendicular Skeleton
An Introduction to the Appendicular Skeleton
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Learning Outcomes
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8-1 Identify the bones that form the pectoral girdle, their functions, and
their superficial features.
8-2 Identify the bones of the upper limbs, their functions, and their
superficial features.
8-3 Identify the bones that form the pelvic girdle, their functions, and
their superficial features.
8-4 Identify the bones of the lower limbs, their functions, and their
superficial features.
8-5 Summarize sex differences and age-related changes in the human skeleton.
The Appendicular Skeleton
• 126 bones
• Allows us to move and __________ objects
• Includes all bones besides axial skeleton
• The limbs
• The _______- girdles
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The Pectoral Girdle
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Also called shoulder girdle
Connects the arms to the body
Positions the shoulders
Provides a _______ for arm movement
Consists of:
• Two clavicles
• Two scapulae
• Connects with the axial skeleton only at the manubrium
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The Clavicles
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Also called ________________
Long, S-shaped bones
Originate at the manubrium (sternal end)
Articulate with the scapulae (acromial end)
The Scapulae
• Also called shoulder blades
• Broad, flat ___________
• Articulate with arm and collarbone
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Structures of the scapula
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Body has three sides
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
1. Superior border
2. ___________ border (vertebral border)
3. Lateral border (axillary border)
• Body has three corners
• Superior angle
• Inferior angle
• Lateral angle (__________)
• The scapular head
• Holds glenoid ____________
• Which articulates with humerus
• To form shoulder joint (glenohumeral joint)
• Processes of the glenoid cavity
• Coracoid process
• Anterior, smaller
• Acromion
• Posterior, larger
• Articulates with clavicle
8-2 The Upper Limbs
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The Upper Limbs
• Consist of:
• The arms, forearms, wrists, and _________
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Note: arm (brachium) = 1 bone, the humerus
The Humerus
• Also called the arm
• The long, upper arm bone
• Articulates with the pelvic girdle
• Tubercles of the proximal epiphysis
• Separated by the intertubercular _________• Greater tubercle
• Lateral
• Forms tip of shoulder
• Lesser tubercle
• Anterior, medial
• Head
• Rounded, articulating surface
• Contained within joint capsule
• Anatomical neck
• Margin of joint capsule
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Surgical neck
• The narrow metaphysis
• The distal epiphysis
• Medial and lateral epicondyles
• For muscle attachment
• Condyle of the humerus
• Articulates with ulna and radius
• Articular regions of the condyle
• Trochlea
• Coronoid fossa and olecranon fossa
• Articulates with ulna
• Capitulum
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The Forearm
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Also called the antebrachium
Consists of two long bones
1. ________ (medial)
2. ________ (lateral)
The Ulna
• The olecranon
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Superior end of ulna
Point of elbow
Superior lip of trochlear notch
Articulates with trochlea of humerus
• The coronoid process
• Inferior lip of trochlear notch
• Articulations with the humerus
• Forearm extended
• Olecranon enters olecranon fossa
• Forearm flexed
• Coronoid process enters coronoid fossa
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The Ulna
• Other articulations
• Radial notch
• Articulates with head of radius
• Forms proximal radio-ulnar joint
• Ulnar head
• Prominent styloid process
• Attaches to articular disc between forearm and wrist
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The Radius
• Lateral bone of forearm
• Disk-shaped radial head above the neck
• Radial tuberosity below the neck, attaches biceps
• Articulations of the radius
• Ulnar notch
• Distal end
• Articulates with wrist and radius
• Styloid process
• Stabilizes wrist joint
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Eight Carpal Bones
• _____ proximal carpal bones
• _____ distal carpal bones
• Allow wrist to bend and _________
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Proximal Carpal Bones
1. Scaphoid
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Near styloid process
2. Lunate
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Medial to scaphoid
3. Triquetrum
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Medial to lunate
4. Pisiform
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Anterior to triquetrum
Distal Carpal Bones
1. Trapezium
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Lateral
2. Trapezoid
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Medial to trapezium
3. Capitate
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Largest
4. Hamate
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Medial, distal
• Metacarpal Bones
• The five long bones of the hand
• Numbered I–V from lateral (thumb) to medial
• Articulate with proximal phalanges
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Phalanges of the Hands
• 14 total finger bones
• __________ (thumb)
• Two phalanges (proximal, distal)
• Fingers
• Three phalanges (proximal, middle, distal)
8-3 The Pelvic Girdle
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The Pelvic Girdle
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Made up of two ________ bones (coxal bones)
Strong to bear body weight, stress of movement
Part of the pelvis
Coxal bones
• Made up of three fused bones
1. Ilium (articulates with sacrum)
2. ___________
3. Pubis
Coxal Bones
• The acetabulum
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Also called the hip socket
Is the meeting point of the ilium, ischium, and pubis
Is on the lateral surface of the hip bone (coxal bone)
Articulates with head of the femur (lunate surface)
• Acetabular notch
• A gap in the ridge of the margins of the acetabulum
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Marks of the Ilium
• ____________
• Iliac crest
• Upper brim
• Iliac fossa
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Marks of the Ischium
• Ischial spine
• Above lesser sciatic notch
• Ischial tuberosity
• Posterior projection you sit on
• Ischial ramus
• Meets inferior ramus of pubis
• Superior ramus
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Meets pubic tubercle
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Marks of the Pubis
• Pubic symphysis
• Gap between pubic tubercles
• Padded with fibrocartilage
• Obturator foramen
• Formed by ischial and pubic rami
• Attaches hip muscles
• Coxal Bones
• Articulations of the pelvic girdle
• Sacroiliac joint
• Articulation of posterior auricular surface of ilium
• With the sacrum
• Stabilized by ligaments of iliac tuberosity
• The Pelvis
• Consists of two coxal bones, the sacrum, and the coccyx
• Stabilized by ligaments of pelvic girdle, sacrum, and ___________ vertebrae
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Divisions of the Pelvis (what is the difference between the true and false
pelvis)
• True pelvis
• Encloses pelvic cavity
• Pelvic brim
• Upper edge of true pelvis
• Encloses pelvic inlet
• Perineum region
• Inferior edges of true pelvis
• Forms pelvic outlet
• Perineal muscles support organs of pelvic cavity
• False pelvis
• Blades of ilium above arcuate line
• Comparing the Male Pelvis and Female Pelvis
• Female pelvis
• Smoother and lighter
• Less prominent muscle and ligament attachments
• Pelvis modifications for childbearing
• Enlarged pelvic outlet
• Broad pubic angle (>100°)
• Less curvature of sacrum and coccyx
• Wide, circular pelvic inlet
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Broad, low pelvis
• Ilia project laterally, not upwards
8-4 The Lower Limbs
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What are the functions of the Lower Limbs
• ___________
• ___________
8-4 The Lower Limbs
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Bones of the Lower Limbs
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Femur (thigh)
Patella (kneecap)
Tibia and fibula (leg)
Tarsals (ankle)
Metatarsals (foot)
Phalanges (toes)
The Femur
• The proximal epiphysis
• Femoral head
• The neck
• Narrow area between head and trochanters
• Joins shaft at angle
• Trochanters
• Greater trochanter and lesser trochanter
• Tendon attachments
• The distal epiphysis
• Medial epicondyle and lateral epicondyle
• Above the knee joint
• Medial condyle and lateral condyle
• Separated by intercondylar fossa and patellar surface
• Form part of knee joint
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The Patella
• Also called the knee_________
• A __________bone
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The Tibia
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Also called the ______________
Supports body weight
Larger than fibula
Medial to fibula
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The proximal epiphysis
• Medial and lateral tibial condyles
• Separated by intercondylar eminence
• Articulate with medial and lateral condyles of femur
• Tibial tuberosity
• Attaches patellar ligament
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The FibuLA (LAteral)
• Attaches muscles of feet and toes
• Smaller than tibia
• Lateral to tibia
• Articulations with tibia
• Fibula/tibia articulations
• Head
• Inferior tibiofibular joint
• Lateral malleolus
• Lateral projection of ankle
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The Ankle
• Also called the tarsus
• Consists of seven tarsal bones
• Bones of the ankle
• Talus
• Carries weight from tibia across trochlea
• _____________- (heel bone)
• Transfers weight from talus to ground
• Cuboid
• Articulates with calcaneus
• Bones of the ankle
• Navicular
• Articulates with talus and three cuneiform bones
• Medial cuneiform
• Intermediate cuneiform
• Lateral cuneiform
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Metatarsal Bones of the Foot
• Five long bones of foot
• Numbered I–V, medial to lateral
• Articulate with toes
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Phalanges of the Foot
• Phalanges
• 14 bones of the toes
• ____________
• Big toe or great toe, two phalanges (distal, proximal)
• Other four toes
• Three phalanges (distal, medial, proximal)
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Arches of the Feet
• Arches transfer weight from one part of the foot to another
• The _________ arch
• The transverse arch
• Formed by a difference in curvature between medial and lateral borders of
the foot
8-5 Individual Skeleton Variation
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Why is it important to study the skeleton
• Reveals characteristics
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Muscle ___________ and mass (bone ridges, bone mass)
Medical _________ (condition of teeth, healed fractures)
Sex and ______ (bone measurements and fusion)
Body size
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 9
Articulations
An Introduction to Articulations
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Learning Outcomes
• 9-1 Contrast the major categories of joints, and explain the relationship
between structure and function for each
category.
• 9-2 Describe the basic structure of a synovial joint, and describe common
synovial joint accessory structures and
their functions.
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9-3 Describe how the anatomical and functional properties of synovial joints
permit movements of the skeleton.
9-4 Describe the articulations between the vertebrae of the vertebral column.
9-5 Describe the structure and function of the shoulder joint and the elbow
joint.
9-6 Describe the structure and function of the hip joint and the knee joint.
9-7 Describe the effects of aging on articulations, and discuss the most
common age-related clinical problems for
articulations.
• 9-8 Explain the functional relationships between the skeletal system and
other body systems.
An Introduction to Articulations
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Articulations
• Body movement occurs at _____________, where two bones connect
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Joint Structure
• Determines direction and __________ of movement (_____________= ROM)
• Joint strength __________ as mobility increases
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Two Methods of Classification
1. Functional classification is based on range of motion of the joint
2. Structural classification relies on the anatomical organization of the
joint
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Functional Classifications—Be able to give examples!
• Synarthrosis (immovable joint)
• Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable joint)
• Diarthrosis (freely movable joint)
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Structural Classifications
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Bony
Fibrous
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Synovial
Classification of Joints
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Synarthroses (_______________Joints)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Are very ___________
Edges of bones may touch or interlock
Four types of synarthrotic joints (Be able to give examples!)
1. Suture
2. ________________
3. Synchondrosis
4. _______________
Suture
• Bones interlocked
• Are bound by dense fibrous connective tissue
• Are found only in skull
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Gomphosis
• Fibrous connection (periodontal ligament)
• Binds teeth to sockets
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Synchondrosis
• Is a rigid cartilaginous bridge between two bones
• Epiphyseal cartilage of long bones
• Between vertebrosternal ribs and sternum
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Synostosis
• Fused bones, immovable
• Metopic suture of skull
• Epiphyseal lines of long bones
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Amphiarthroses
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More ___________ than synarthrosis
Stronger than freely movable joint
Two types of amphiarthroses
1. Syndesmosis
• Bones connected by ligaments
2. Symphysis
• Bones separated by fibrocartilage
Synovial Joints (Diarthroses)
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Also called ____________ joints
At ends of long bones
Within articular capsules
Lined with synovial membrane
9-2 Synovial Joints
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Articular Cartilages (what is the function?)
• Pad articulating surfaces within articular capsules
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Prevent bones from ___________
• Smooth surfaces lubricated by synovia ______________
• Reduce _________
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Synovial Fluid (what are the 3 functions?)
• Contains slippery proteoglycans secreted by fibroblasts
• Functions of synovial fluid
1. Lubrication
2. _________________
3. Shock ___________
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Accessory Structures
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Cartilages
Fat pads
Ligaments
Tendons
Bursae
Cartilages
• Cushion the joint
• Fibrocartilage pad called a meniscus (or articular disc; plural, menisci)
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Fat Pads
• Superficial to the joint capsule
• Protect articular cartilages
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Ligaments
• Support, strengthen joints
• Sprain – ligaments with torn collagen fibers
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Tendons
• Attach to muscles around joint
• Help support joint
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Bursae
• Singular, bursa, a pouch
• Pockets of synovial fluid
• Cushion areas where tendons or ligaments ___________
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Factors That Stabilize Synovial Joints
• Prevent injury by _____________________
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Collagen fibers (joint capsule, ligaments)
Articulating surfaces and menisci
Other bones, muscles, or fat pads
Tendons of articulating bones
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Injuries
• Dislocation (luxation)
• Articulating surfaces forced out of position
• Damages articular cartilage, ligaments, joint capsule
• Subluxation
• A partial dislocation
9-3 Movements
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Three Types of Dynamic Motion
1. Linear movement (gliding)
2. ___________
3. Rotation
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Planes (Axes) of Dynamic Motion
• Monaxial (1 axis)
• Biaxial (2 axes)
• Triaxial (3 axes)
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Types of Movement at Synovial Joints
• Terms describe:
• Plane or direction of motion
• Relationship between _________________•
Types of Movement at Synovial Joints
• Gliding Movement
• Two surfaces slide past each other
• Between carpal or tarsal bones
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Angular Movement
• Flexion
• Angular motion
• Anterior–posterior plane
• Reduces angle between elements
• Extension
• Angular motion
• Anterior–posterior plane
• Increases angle between elements
• Hyperextension
• Angular motion
• Extension past anatomical position
• Abduction
• Angular motion
• Frontal plane
• Moves away from longitudinal axis
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Adduction
• Angular motion
• Frontal plane
• Moves toward longitudinal axis
• Circumduction
• Circular motion without rotation
• Angular motion
• Rotation
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Direction of rotation from anatomical position
Relative to longitudinal axis of body
Left or right rotation
Medial rotation (inward rotation)
• Rotates toward axis
• Lateral rotation (outward rotation)
• Rotates away from axis
• Pronation
• Rotates forearm, radius over ulna
• Supination
• Forearm in anatomical position
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Special Movements
• Inversion
• Twists sole of foot medially
• Eversion
• Twists sole of foot laterally
• Dorsiflexion
• Flexion at ankle (lifting toes)
• Plantar flexion
• Extension at ankle (pointing toes)
• Opposition
• Thumb movement toward fingers or palm (grasping)
• Reposition
• Opposite of opposition
• Protraction
• Moves anteriorly
• In the horizontal plane (pushing forward)
• Retraction
• Opposite of protraction
• Moving anteriorly (pulling back)
• Elevation
• Moves in superior direction (up)
• Depression
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Moves in inferior direction (down)
• Lateral flexion
• Bends vertebral column from side to side
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Classification of Synovial Joints by Shape
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Gliding
Hinge
Pivot
Condylar
Saddle
Ball-and-socket
Gliding Joints
• Flattened or slightly curved faces
• Limited motion (nonaxial)
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Hinge Joints
• Angular motion in a single plane (monaxial)
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Pivot Joints
• Rotation only (monaxial)
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Condylar Joints
• Oval articular face within a depression
• Motion in two planes (biaxial)
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Saddle Joints
• Two concave, straddled (biaxial)
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Ball-and-socket Joints
• Round articular face in a depression (triaxial)
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Joints
• A joint cannot be both mobile and _____________
• The greater the mobility, the weaker the joint
• Mobile joints are supported by _________ and ligaments, not bone-to-bone
connections
9-6 The Knee Joint
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The Knee Joint
• A complicated hinge joint
• Transfers weight from femur to tibia
• Articulations of the knee joint
• Two femur–tibia articulations
• At medial and lateral condyles
• One between patella and patellar surface of femur
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
•
The Articular Capsule and Joint Cavity
• Medial and lateral menisci
• Fibrocartilage pads
• At femur–tibia articulations
• Cushion and stabilize joint
• Give lateral support
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Seven Major Supporting Ligaments
1. Patellar ligament (anterior)
2. & 3. Two popliteal ligaments (posterior)
4. & 5. Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments (inside joint capsule)
6. Tibial collateral ligament (medial)
7. Fibular collateral ligament (lateral)
9-7 Effects of Aging on Articulations
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Degenerative Changes
• Rheumatism
• A pain and stiffness of skeletal and muscular systems
• Arthritis
• All forms of rheumatism that damage articular cartilages of synovial joints
• Osteoarthritis
• Caused by wear and tear of joint surfaces, or genetic factors affecting
collagen formation
• Generally in people over age 60
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Rheumatoid Arthritis
• An inflammatory condition
• Caused by infection, allergy, or autoimmune disease
• Involves the immune system
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Gouty Arthritis
• Occurs when crystals (uric acid or calcium salts)
• Form within synovial fluid
• Due to metabolic disorders
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Joint Immobilization
• Reduces flow of synovial fluid
• Can cause arthritis symptoms
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Bones and Aging
• Bone mass decreases
• Bones weaken
• Increases risk of hip fracture, hip dislocation, or pelvic fracture
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
9-8 Integration with Other Systems
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Bone Recycling
• Living bones maintain equilibrium between:
• Bone building (osteo_____)
• And breakdown (osteo_____)
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List the 5 Factors Affecting Bone Strength
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Bones Support Body Systems
• Support and protect other systems
• Store fat, ______________and __________
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•
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©
Manufacture cells for _________
Disorders in other body systems can cause:
Osteoporosis
Arthritis
Rickets (vitamin D deficiency)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
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