Download an overview of roman history

AN OVERVIEW OF ROMAN HISTORY
April 21, 753 B.C. Rome is founded, monarchy begins, 7 kings of Rome – 1) Romulus (born
in Alba Longa, mom is Rhea Silvia (Ilia), dad is Mars, grandfather is Numitor, Amulius is Numitor’s
wicked brother who drove out Numitor and had the twins thrown in the Tiber, found by a she wolf, raised
by shepherd Faustulus and his wife, Aca Laurentia) kills his twin Remus, founds Rome on the Palatine
hill, abducts Sabine women to get wives for his men, is deified as Quirinus; 2) Numa Pompilius –
organization of religion, temples, calendar; 3)Tullus Hostilius – warlike, expanded territory, defeated Alba
Longa (Horatii vs. Curiatii), died having been struck by lightning for improperly performing a sacrifice to
Jupiter; 4) Ancus Marcius – warlike, built Sublician Bridge over Tiber, port at Ostia; 5) Tarquinius
Priscus – first Etruscan king, lots of building, murdered by sons of Ancus; 6) Servius Tullius – married to
Tarquin’s daughter, is put on the throne through the work of Tanaquil, Tarquin’s wife, held the first census,
organization of people based on wealth, wall around Rome which made all 7 hills part of Rome, killed by
Tarquinius Superbus at the urging of Tarquin’s wife (who was Servius’ daughter, Tullia; Tullia later ran
over the body of her dead father in a chariot); 7) Tarquinius Superbus (the Proud) ignored or executed
senators, built Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline hill and the Cloaca Maxima (Rome’s main sewer). His
son raped the matron Lucretia, who then killed herself, which led to the expulsion of the kings.
509 B.C. Monarchy ends, Republic begins. Lucius Junius Brutus leads expulsion of king and
becomes one of the first two consuls (along with Tarquinius Collatinus). Etruscans led by Lars Porsenna of
Clusium attack Rome. Heroes from this period: Horatius – defends the Sublician bridge against Porsenna;
Mucius Scaevola – captured trying to kill Porsenna, threatened with torture unless he revealed the Roman
plans, thrust his hand into a fire to show his bravery, and said that many other Romans had sworn to kill
Porsenna if he failed; Cloelia – led an escape of hostages; Porsenna leaves; Cinncinatus – left his plow to
become dictator to defend Rome against the Aequi (was asked to stay in power after Rome’s victory, but
returned to his plow); Coriolanus (traitor/hero), a Roman who attacked Rome leading the Volsci, but spared
the city when his wife and mother begged him to (the Volsci then killed him).
496 B.C. Battle of Lake Regillus – Romans defeat Etruscan-Latin coalition with the aid of none
other than Castor and Pollux!
451 B.C. the Twelve Tables of Law – 1st written code of law for Rome, composed by a panel of
10 men (called the decemviri) headed by Appius Claudius (whose lust for Verginia led her to kill herself).
396 B.C. Destruction of Veii, an Etruscan city close to Rome. Etruscans no longer pose a threat
to Roman prosperity. The Roman general Camillus led his forces to victory by performing the terrible
ritual of summoning forth out of Veii the gods which protected the city (evocatio).
390 B.C. Battle of the River Allia - Rome is sacked by the Gauls for the first time, led by
Brennus (who, when the Romans complained about the peace terms, said “Vae victis,” “Woe to the
conquered.”). Stories say that the citadel on the Capitoline was saved by the sacred geese of Juno and by
Marcus Manlius (afterwards given the cognomen “Capitolinus”), and that Camillus defeated the Gauls
after the Vae Victis episode (Camillus was called a “Second Romulus”, but the Romans really had to pay
the Gauls to leave. Rome never forgets this humiliation; Julius Caesar later repays the Gauls.
321 B.C. Battle of the Caudine Forks in the 2nd Samnite War. Rome fought 3 wars with this
southern Italian hill people. In this battle the Roman army was annihilated. This disaster made them
determined to form a strong army and gain power over all of Italy. They do so after the 3 rd Samnite War.
280-275 B.C. Wars with King Pyrrhus of Epirus, A Greek who tried to take the southern tip of
Italy from Rome. There were Greek colonies there (this area was called Magna Graecia). He was the first
to attack Italy using elephants. At Ausculum Pyrrhus won the battle, but lost so many men that he couldn’t
follow up on his success (hence the term Pyrrhic Victory, one which you technically win, but at a cost so
great that you may as well have lost). Pyrrhus was driven out after the Battle of Maleventum (Bad Wind),
a city whose name was then changed to Beneventum (Good Wind). A hero from this war was Fabricius,
who through several episodes became known for his integrity and honesty and was respected by Pyrrhus.
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264 – 146 B.C. The Punic Wars - The Three Punic Wars fought against Carthage
1st Punic War 264-241 fought over trade and Sicily. Rome builds its first navy (equipped with
the corvus (crow) and finally wins. The decisive battle was Aegates Islands. The Carthaginian leader was
Hamilcar Barca. Rome gets its first province, Sicily, and then takes Sardinia and Corsica.
2nd Punic War 218-202/201 B.C. – Carthage brings the war to Italy. Hannibal Barca, son of
Hamilcar, had sworn an oath of hatred for the Romans when he was nine. Setting out from Spain, he
crosses the Alps with elephants, invades Italy, and defeats the Romans every time he faces them (Ticinus,
Trebia (218), Trasimene (217), and Cannae (216 – Rome loses 35, 000 men). Romans decide to lead
Hannibal on a chase around Italy using the “delaying” tactics of their general Quintus Fabius Maximus
Cunctator (“the Delayer”). Hannibal, short on troops and supplies after 15 years in Italy, has to return
home because Scipio had landed near Carthage. There, in 202 at the Battle of Zama, he is defeated by
Publius Cornelius Scipio (who is then given the agnomen “Africanus” for the victory).
3rd Punic War 149-146 B.C. – not much of a war, Rome just wanted to get rid of Carthage
(Cato ended his speeches with “Carthago delenda est” – “Carthage must be destroyed”). P. Cornelius
Scipio Aemilianus wins the war. Carthage is no longer a threat. In the same year Rome destroys Corinth
(Mummius is the general) in Greece (Rome takes Greece and the Greek states in Asia Minor). From this
point the world was theirs.
133, 123 B.C. Tiberius (133) and Gaius (123) Gracchus hold the office of tribune of the plebs.
Though upper class, they work to help the poor by attempting grain and land reforms, and they bypass the
senate in their attempts. The rich don’t like this, both were killed, but they started a process of involving
the not-so-rich in politics. Know also as Cornelia’s Jewels, because their mother, Cornelia, when asked to
show her jewelry to a rich visitor who was showing off hers, called in her two boys.
107 B.C. Marius elected consul (would be consul 7 times). In 104 he defeats Jugurtha, an
African king, with the aid of his lieutenant Sulla. Marius restructures the army (called Marius’ Mules),
making it professional and paid. Army becomes more loyal to the general than to Rome. He avenges the
annihilation of the Roman legions by two German tribes, the Cimbri and Teutones. Then he and Sulla
become enemies over who is to fight against Mithridates, King of Pontus in the east (Sulla eventually
marches on Rome with his army, then goes and defeats Mithridates); there is a big power struggle, and
Sulla wins. Marius dies of natural causes in his 7th consulship.
91-83 B.C. The Social War – non-Roman Italians want Roman citizenship, and the Samnites
want to be free of Rome. Rome wins the war and gives the Italians the citizenship they wanted.
82 B.C. Sulla becomes the first Roman general to take control of Rome by force; he makes
himself dictator. Marius’ main supporter, Cinna, is murdered. Sulla rids himself of political enemies
through proscription lists (if you were on the list, a citizen could kill you without punishment). Those on
the list also had their property confiscated.
73-71 B.C. Spartacus leads a slave uprising which is put down by the consuls Pompey and
Crassus. Pompey becomes a famous general by ridding the Mediterranean of pirates (authorized by Lex
Gabinia) and by defeating Mithridates (authorized by Lex Manilia) (the same one that Marius and Sulla
were to fight). Crassus contents himself (for the time being) with his fire brigade and becoming richer.
63 B.C. Cicero (greatest lawyer in Rome and now consul) saves Rome from the conspiracy of
Catiline, who was planning to take over Rome by force. Cicero has the conspirators killed without trial
and is a hero (temporarily). He is proclaimed (or proclaims himself) the father of his country. Julius
Caesar, a popular young man on the rise, speaks against Cicero’s method of putting down the conspiracy.
Cicero also tries to reconcile the Equestrians and Patricians. This is known of the Concordia Ordinum.
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60 B.C. The 1st Triumvirate is formed by Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar. This is an unofficial
political alliance between the three most popular men in Rome.
59 B.C. Consulship of Caesar and Bibullus, though Caesar threatens Bibullus into staying in
hiding at his home for the entire year. Jokingly referred to as the consulship of Julius and Caesar.
58-49 B.C. Caesar is in Gaul as governor. He wanted a place where he could make a name for
himself on the battlefield (as Pompey had done), and he got the right spot. He defeats many a barbarian
tribe there, and makes Gaul a province after his victory over Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia in 52
B.C. He even went to Britain in 55 and 54, but didn’t hold it. His Commentaries on the Gallic War were
very popular back in Rome (he sent reports periodically). Caesar’s rising popularity troubles Pompey.
53 B.C. Crassus is killed at the Battle of Carrhae trying to win military glory for himself against
the arrow-shooting Parthians. This ends the first triumvirate. Pompey and Caesar vie for power.
Jan. 10, 49 B.C. Caesar crosses the Rubicon river into Italy at the head of his army. The
problem: there was a law against this, called maiestas, passed by Sulla, which made this act treason and
punishable by death. Caesar broke this law because Pompey had been trying to undercut his power.
Caesar’s famous quote, “Alea iacta est,” shows that he knew his position: he would either win a civil war
and take control of Rome, or would die as a traitor. He won.
48 B.C. Battle of Pharsalus – Caesar defeats Pompey in Greece (Pompey and his army had
fled), and takes power. Pompey then flees to Egypt, where he is killed. He takes the title of dictator (for
life). The Republic is dead, after a long illness – they just haven’t had the funeral yet. Caesar roams the
Mediterranean for a couple of years mopping up resistance, and has an affair (and a son) with Cleopatra,
Queen of Egypt, during this time.
March 15, 44 B.C. (the Ides of March) Caesar is assassinated in the Theatre of Pompey by a
Republican coalition led by Brutus and Cassius. His grand-nephew, Octavian, whom he had adopted as
his son in his will, enters the scene.
42 B.C. Battle of Philippi – Marc Antony and Octavian defeat Brutus and Cassius in Greece.
They then fight between themselves, but decide that it’s wise to compromise. The 2nd Triumvirate is
formed. Its members: Octavian, Marc Antony, and Lepidus. It is made legal by the Lex Titia. Many
political enemies are killed, including Cicero, who had spoken against Antony as a power-hungry dictator
in speeches called the Philippics.
31 B.C. Battle of Actium – Antony had the eastern half of the empire, and formed an alliance
with his lover, Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt. With her help, he hopes to wrest power from Octavian. At
Actium, Antony and Cleopatra are defeated by Octavian and his brilliant military commander, Marcus
Agrippa.
27 B.C. Empire begins, Octavian rules – He is given the title of Princeps (first citizen) and
Augustus (revered one). From this point rulers will be called Caesar (though Augustus was actually a
Caesar by adoption). Augustus himself would not accept the title of emperor.
27 B.C. – 14 A.D. – Augustus Caesar (Octavian), 1st of the Julio-Claudian emperors, creates a
golden age for Rome (known as the Pax Romana, Roman Peace). He ends the civil wars which had gone
on for nearly a century. He begins an efficient state bureaucracy, in which positions are salaried by the
government, and under the supervision of the emperor, so as to cut down on corruption. He controls the
army and begins the Praetorian Guard, an elite group of soldiers who also serve as his private guard. He
builds the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) to commemorate brining peace to the world, and rebuilds much of
Rome (he said he found Rome brick, and left it marble). He fosters the arts and with the aid of his advisor,
Maecenas, Rome has its Golden Age of literature (Vergil, Ovid, Livy, Horace, Propertius, Tibullus, etc.).
He brings peace and reorganizes government so Rome can last. There was one disaster under his reign:
the Romans, led by Quinctilius Varus, were wiped out in Teutoburg Forest by the Germans, led by
Arminius in 9 A.D.
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14 – 37 A.D. Tiberius becomes emperor upon the death of Augustus. He was the stepson of
Augustus by his last wife, Livia. He was not very popular (Augustus didn’t much like him, but his son-inlaw, Marcellus, who had been his first choice to take over, died before Augustus, as did the several others
he had marked out to succeed him). He was not a bad emperor, but was bitter and disillusioned and didn’t
have Augustus’ knack for politics. He retired to Capri at the end of his reign. While there he relied too
much on the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard, Sejanus, who was treacherous and power hungry. Sejanus
was executed and replaced by Macro, but not before he had done great harm to Tiberius’ reputation.
Tiberius’ son had been killed, his chosen heir had died, so he left power to Caligula. During the reign of
Tiberius, Jesus was executed in Judea. This was considered at the time to be a minor, local problem.
37 – 41 A.D. Caligula, who becomes one of the worst ever. He was young, and seemed to be
capable until he had a sudden and severe illness. He came out of it loopy (lots of disturbing events in his
childhood). He suddenly seemed to be trying to prove that he could get away with anything, as he was the
most powerful man in the world. Corrupt, half insane (made his horse a consul, etc.). His real name was
Gaius (Caligula, which means “Little Boots,” was a nickname he had received from his father’s soldiers
when he was a boy because he had a little army suit complete with army boots.). He was killed by his own
Praetorian Guard.
41 – 54 A.D. Claudius, who was lame and stuttered, becomes emperor. Many thought him an
idiot (he was shy and stayed out of the way, which was safer), though he was actually quite scholarly. He
wrote two histories of the Etruscans and one of the Carthaginians which unfortunately didn’t survive. The
Praetorian Guard forced him to be emperor (he was the only eligible male left in Octavian’s line and the
Guard thought they could manipulate him). He proved to be fairly capable. He chose good commanders
for the army (including Vespasian); he made Judea and Britain provinces; public works – built aqueducts
rebuilt the port of Ostia. He killed his wife Messalina for plotting against him (and other things quite
scandalous), and then married Agrippina, who apparently poisoned him with mushrooms to advance the
cause of her son by a previous marriage, Nero.
54 – 68 A.D. Nero becomes emperor, starts out ok with the help of a good Praetorian Prefect,
Burrus, and a good tutor and advisor in the philosopher and writer Seneca. Given his family background,
it should come as no surprise that he got wilder as time passed. He had many killed (step-brother
Britannicus, mother Agrippina, his wife Poppaea, Seneca, Lucan, Petronius, political enemies, successful
generals (e.g. Corbulo) out of jealousy). In 60 the Romans put down a revolt led by Queen Boudicca.
There was a great fire during his reign. He was blamed because he later built his Golden Palace on the
land, though the Christians were officially blamed. He thought he was a great actor, musician, and
charioteer and competed all over the empire. Finally Rome had enough, and declared him a public enemy.
To escape execution, he killed himself, saying “O what an artist I die.” He’s the last of the Julio-Claudians.
69 A.D. Year of the Four Emperors – no more direct descendants of Octavian, civil war breaks
out because no one has a better claim than anyone else. Various armies declare that their own generals
should be emperor. The four emperors were Galba, overthrown by Otho, overthrown by Vitellius,
overthrown by Vespasian.
69 – 79 A.D. Vespasian lasts, begins the Flavian dynasty (his family name was Flavius). He
reorganizes the government, reduces debt, increases taxes. He handles administrative problems well. Not
upper class; practical, used common sense. He begins construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, known
as the Colosseum. During his reign his son, Titus, destroyed Jerusalem. He died peacefully.
79 – 81 A.D. Titus, Vespasian’s elder son, is emperor. He captured Jerusalem in 70, had a
triumph, built the Arch of Titus to commemorate this. Everyone loved him. Vesuvius erupted during his
reign (August 24, 79), burying Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabiae. He could have been great, but he died
just as he was getting started. His younger brother, Domitian, took over.
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81 – 96 A.D. Domitian is emperor, puts down rebellions in the provinces, pushes into Dacia
(Romania). Was too autocratic, hated the senate, made them mad. He was jealous of good generals. He
was assassinated with the help of his wife. No heirs, more crisis.
96 – 180 A.D. The Five Good Emperors (also called the Adoptive Emperors). Fortunately Rome
came out ok. Domitian’s death led to a period when the first emperor was chosen for moderation and the
rest were adopted, based on their merit. Succession was hereditary, but based on the adoption of someone
good, not birth. The Five Good Emperors were:
96 – 98 Nerva is old, non-military, a Senate’s man. No jealousies from the army. He gave Rome
a breathing space. He avoided trouble by adopting Trajan, commander of the armies in Upper Germany.
98 – 117 Trajan, a Roman born in Spain (colonies there, dad Roman, mom Spanish), he was the
first emperor from the provinces. He was emperor at the time of Rome’s greatest extent (took Dacia
and Parthia; Trajan’s Column commemorates the Dacian Wars). Pliny the Younger wrote him as
governor of Bithynia about the Christians, other concerns. Uprisings in Parthia, Judea; he went there, on
his return he died in Cilicia. Social welfare: he extended programs for poor kids and parents (alimenta).
117 – 138 Hadrian is adopted by Trajan, and is also from Spain. Traveled throughout the
provinces and improved wherever he went. Patron of the arts, architecture (palace at Tivoli, Hadrian’s
Mausoleum, rebuilt the Pantheon). He abandoned some of Trajan’s conquests, but kept Dacia, which
became Romania. He disciplined and trained the army, enlarged the staff of beaurocrats. He codified the
law, built Hadrian’s Wall in Britain to regulate traffic flow of barbarians, etc.
138 – 161 Antoninus Pius is much loved, upright, honest, and devoted. Quiet, kept the peace and
the status quo. Nothing important really, but smooth. But this was the calm than before the storm. In his
reign things started sliding: army discipline, provincial discipline declined, gave initiative to the barbarians.
He did build the Antonine Wall farther north in Britain to keep out the Scots.
161 – 180 Marcus Aurelius, the best prepared emperor (Antoninus adopted him and prepared him
early and well). Learned, educated, kind, devoted. But problems which had been building began to trouble
the empire. He was a stoic, believed in service, high ideals for mankind. Wrote Meditations (a
philosophical work written in Greek) in a tent while touring with the army. Early in his reign he got the
senate to agree to make his adoptive brother Lucius Verus co-emperor. But all Marcus Aurelius’ learning
did not make him a good judge of men. Verus, not equal to the task, did little. Legions in the East pushed
back the Parthians again, but they brought back the plague. Pushed back a German threat that had reached
northern Italy in the Marcomannic War. He had plans to extend the empire in Germany, but was called
away to a revolt in the East; he arrived there to find the leader of the revolt dead, but he had lost initiative
in Germany. He caught a fever and died at Vindobona (Vienna). If he had been followed by someone
capable, the empire may have been ok, but he let his son be heir: Commodus, whose name fit his ability.
Marcus Aurelius is the last of the Five Good Emperors.
180 – 192 Commodus, rotten, abandoned the frontier conquests of his predecessors to live it up in
Rome. Reign of terror, murders; wanted to be a gladiator (dressed as Hercules). Was assassinated; no heir;
crisis again; civil war; a couple of short term emperors follow, including Didius Julianus who set the
dangerous precedent of buying the emperorship from the Praetorian Guard in a strange auction.
193-211 Septimius Severus emerges from the civil war as emperor. Starts Severan dynasty. He
was African by birth, and aware that he owed everything to the army. Hostile to the senate, he killed many
and confiscated their estates. Took care of the soldiers, filled the Praetorian Guard with officers from the
ranks. Restored the frontiers, kept Rome safe from invasion for a while. The Arch of Septimius Severus
commemorates victories over the Parthians and Arabs. Extended power in Scotland, died in Britain.
211 – 217 Caracalla and Geta, sons of Septimius Severus, are heirs, but Caracalla kills Geta
early on. Spies, secret police. Edict of 212 gave citizenship to everyone in order to raise taxes.
Citizenship becomes a burden, not a privilege. He also built the Baths of Caracalla.
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218 – 222 Basianus (Elegabalus), 14 years old, chosen by Eastern legions, nicknamed
“Elegabalus” after sun god in the East. A “pervert’s carnival” in Rome. Assassinated.
222 – 235 Severus Alexander, brother of Elegabalus, mild, empire is ruled judiciously by him
and his strong mother, Julia Mamaea. Both assassinated by Maximinius Thrax, a 7 footer who briefly
becomes emperor.
235 – 268 Civil War, taxes, confiscations, plague, earthquakes, trade is hurt, land is not
cultivated. Goths from Sweden attack Danube area, Rome loses territory. In 251 Decius begins the first
heavy persecution of the Christians.
268 – 282 The Illyrian Emperors: Claudius Gothicus, Aurelian, Probus, Carus, appointed by the
army, won back lost parts of the empire. Aurelian started new state cult – the Unconquered Sun (Sol
Invictus), associated the emperor with Eastern sun god ritual (leads to the divine right of kings). Aurelian
called himself Restitutor Orbis (Restorer of the World). Lost Dacia, but consolidated the rest of the
empire.
284 – 305 Diocletian, also an Illyrian, reorganizes the empire into a Tetrarchy (4 emperors: 2
seniors (Augusti), 2 juniors (Caesares)). Upon the death of an Augustus, the Caesar would move up. There
were 4 capitals. This model was based on the eastern totalitarian state. He hoped to cut down on civil
strife, but it led to more taxes for a corrupt bureaucracy and inflation. He tried the Edict of Prices (froze
and fixed all prices), but this failed. When Diocletian retired, the system fell apart. He was also the last
and greatest persecutor of the Christians.
306 – 337 Constantine defeats his rival, Maxentius, at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312
(“In hoc signo vinces”). He won complete control when he defeated Licinius in 323. In 313 the Edict of
Milan gave freedom of worship to all. Constantine was baptized a Christian on his deathbed. He built
Constantinople as the eastern capital (it had been called Byzantium, it’s now Istanbul). This city became
the stronghold of Christian classicism until it fell to the Turks in 1453.
375 Huns on the frontier, had to give them concessions, many of them in the army.
395 Theodosius, last emperor of a united empire, dies. He made Christianity Rome’s official
state religion.
406 Rhine defenses collapse against the Vandals and the Suebi. Rome loses Spain and Germany.
410 Alaric the Goth captures Rome.
451 Attila and the Huns are defeated by Aetius at Chalons-sur-Marne (the first of many
important battles at the Marne). Attila dies in 453.
476 Odoacer, a barbarian, is appointed Magister Equitum (master of the cavalry). He deposes
Romulus Augustulus, Rome’s last emperor, and the western empire ends. Zeno is emperor in the East
when this happens.
A PROPHECY OF OLD: When Romulus and Remus had argued over who would control the
city, they had decided to consult auguries. Romulus saw 12 vultures (or eagles), and Remus saw 6.
Romulus got the city on numbers (and because he killed Remus), and his 12 birds were taken by prophets
to stand for the years through which Rome would hold dominion (1200 years). From the founding of Rome
(753 B.C.) to the deposition of Romulus Augustulus (476 A.D.) = 1229 years!