Download Lecture 3. Phrases

Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
A1/HS1/T1 Grammar
Autumn/Fall Term 2012
Lecture 3. Phrases

Function:
o
Phrases are at a higher level of grammatical structure than individual words
(although a phrase may consist of a single word!).
o
Phrases function as clause elements or parts of clause elements.

Structure:
o
Phrases always contain a head, which is often – but not always – a word
belonging to the word class after which the phrase is named.
o
Phrases may also contain other elements.

NOTE. There are some differences in how phrases are identified and
defined in the Linguistics course (e.g. in Yule’s The Study of Language)
and in the Language Structure course (e.g. in UGE). The Language
Structure course is based on the set-up presented in UGE. A brief
illustration of how a sentence might be analysed differently is given on
p. 3 of this handout; remember that it is the Language Structure analysis
that is relevant to the Language Structure course!
o
Phrases can often be identified through substitution tests (see p. 4 of this
handout for an example).

The noun phrase (NP):
o
Always contains a head, which may be:

A noun (e.g. my black dogs).

A pronoun (e.g. you).

(More rarely) an adjective (e.g. the unemployed) (see Lecture 9).
o
May contain one or more determiners, which specify the reference of the noun
phrase:

Articles (e.g. the environment).

Pronouns (e.g. her textbook).

Genitive noun phrases (e.g. my old friend’s address).

Numerals (e.g. three attempts).

NOTE. UGE (p. 59) says that numerals can be classified either as
determiners or as premodifiers. In this course, they are considered
to be determiners.
o
May contain one or more premodifiers, which describe or classify the head:

Adjectives (e.g. every available man), including participial adjectives (e.g.
a stunning performance).

Nouns (e.g. a bronze sculpture).
1
Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
A1/HS1/T1 Grammar
Autumn/Fall Term 2012

o
o
Classifying genitive nouns (e.g. a children’s book).

NOTE. UGE (p. 59) lists girl’s in a girl’s school as a premodifier and a
classifying noun in the genitive. This is an error: in a girl’s school
(Swedish en flickas skola), a girl’s is a determiner (a genitive noun
phrase) and school is the head. The example should be a girls’ school
(Swedish en flickskola), with a as determiner, girls’ as premodifier,
and school as head.
May contain one or more postmodifiers, which provide more information on
the head, such as (see UGE [p. 60] for a more comprehensive list):

Prepositional phrases (e.g. a nice lecture on grammar).

Dependent (relative) clauses (e.g. the guy who stole your jacket).
NPs often function as subjects, objects, predicatives, adverbials,
prepositional complements, or (in the genitive) determiners in other NPs.

The verb phrase (VP):
o
Always contains a head – the main verb, which is always the last (and
sometimes the only) verb in the verb phrase.
o
May contain between one and four auxiliary verbs (e.g. That would have made
sense with would and have as auxiliaries and made as main verb).
o
A VP forms the clause element verb (V).

The adjective phrase (AdjP):
o
Always contains a head, which is an adjective (e.g. The sofa is blue) or a
participial adjective (e.g. Those people seem interesting).
o
May contain modifiers such as adverbs (e.g. Those people seem extremely
interesting) or complements (e.g. I’m happy to wait here).

The adverb phrase (AP):
o
Always contains a head, which is an adverb (e.g. You speak quietly).
o
May contain modifiers (e.g. You speak too quietly).

The prepositional phrase (PP):
o
Contains a head, which is a preposition (e.g. I’m at the office).
o
Contains a complement:

The complement is usually a noun phrase (e.g. I’m at the office).

The complement slot may also be filled by other structures (see section
3.3.5 in UGE).

NOTE. That-clauses and infinitives cannot be prepositional complements
in English (see Lecture 8).
o
Frequent functions of PPs:

Postmodifier in a NP.

The clause element adverbial (A).
2
Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
A1/HS1/T1 Grammar
Autumn/Fall Term 2012
Clause Analysis in Language Structure and Linguistics
Example sentence: She saw the President
Analysis in Language Structure:
Clause
S
V
Od
Clause elements
NP
VP
NP
Phrases
Head
Head
Det
Head
She
saw
the
President
Analysis in Linguistics:
S
NP
Pro
She
VP
V
saw
NP
Art
N
the
President
3
Erik Smitterberg ([email protected])
Dept. of English, Uppsala University
A1/HS1/T1 Grammar
Autumn/Fall Term 2012
Using Substitution Tests to Identify Phrases
Example analysis: She | will beat | the chess player from Lund | very soon S|V|Od|A
Substitution test: She | beats |
him/her
| then
CLAUSE
S
V
Od
A
NP
VP
NP
AP
Head
Aux.
Head
Det
Pre
Head
She
will
beat
the
chess
4
Post
player from Lund
Modifier
very
Head
soon