Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
The ASSURE Model for Lesson Plan Design The ASSURE model is an ISD (Instructional Systems Design) process that was modified to be used by teachers in the regular classroom The ISD process is one in which teachers and trainers can use to design and develop the most appropriate learning environment for their students. You can use this process in writing your lesson plans and in improving teaching and learning. Analyze Learners (5 points) The first step in planning is to specifically define your audience. You must know the learners if you are to select the best strategies to meet the objectives you have set. The audience can be analyzed in terms of their general characteristics (grade level, age) and specific entry competencies (prior knowledge, skills, and attitudes about the topic, and learning styles). State Objectives (5 points) The next step in planning is to specifically state the objectives for the lesson or presentation. Objectives must be stated in terms of what the learner (not the teacher or presenter) will do (stated in behavioral terms) as the result of instruction. Your lesson should include 2-3 specific objectives. Objectives typically contain 4 basic parts: a simple statement that describes the intended Audience. For example, "The first grade student will . . . " or "The tenth grade English student will ..." a statement of the expected student Behavior that will occur as a result of your instruction. This behavior needs to be observable, so it can be evaluated. For example, action verbs like add, alphabetize, arrange, build, choose, classify, contrast, define, describe, diagram, identify, kick, label, locate, make, multiply, name, produce, pronounce, select, sketch, sort, specify, state, throw, underline, verbalize, and write are very useful. Avoid words like know, appreciate, grasp, or understand. These do not represent observable behavior. Remember that the behavior stated is that of the student, not the teacher. a statement of the Conditions under which performance is to be observed. What resources will the student be allowed to use (e.g., a map, a dictionery)? What tools or equipment will the student be allowed to use? Will the student be allowed to use notes or an outline when writing an essay? a statement of the Degree of accuracy or proficiency the learner must display in order to move on. The criteria should be based on some realworld requirement, not stated in terms of a score on a multiple choice test. Time and accuracy are frequently meaningful for many objectives. Should an eleventh grade English student be able to write a five paragraph theme within 50 minutes? If a third grade student can complete at least seven of ten single-digit multiplication problems, can the teacher assume he or she has mastered the concept? Select Media and Materials (5 points) Now you have set the beginning point (the audience's present knowledge, skills, and attitudes) and the ending point (objectives) of your instruction. Now your job is the build an instructional bridge that will connect the two points. You may select available materials, modify existing materials, or design new materials to help accomplish this task. You may select several different types of media to use with the unit. Any of the media/technology discussed in the text will be appropriate. Utilize Media and Materials (5 points) Now you must decide how the materials will be used by the students. Preview the materials and practice the lesson. Next, prepare the room and be sure the necessary equipment and facilities are available and ready for your use before you actually use the lesson. Require Learner Performance (2 points) Learners need to practice what they have learned. Describe how the learners will actively use the materials you have selected. Correct responses should be reinforced. There should be activities included in the lesson or that allow learners to respond and receive feedback before any type of evaluation is administered. Evaluate and Revise (3 points) After instruction, you must evaluate the entire instructional process. Did the learners meet the objectives? Did the media/materials assist the learners in reaching those objectives? Could all learners use the materials properly? If there are discrepancies between what you intended and what actually happened during the lesson, make appropriate revisions before making the lesson again. The ARCS Model of Motivational Design Motivation is defined as an internal drive that activates behavior and gives it direction. The term motivation theory is concerned with the process that describe why and how human behavior is activated and directed. Motivation Concepts Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Instrinsic: defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence. When intrinsically motivated a person is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed rather than because of external rewards.[60] Intrinsic motivation reflects the desire to do something because it is enjoyable. If we are intrinsically motivated, we would not be worried about external rewards such as praise. Examples: Writing short stories because you enjoy writing them, reading a book because you are curious about the topic, and playing chess because you enjoy effortful thinking Extrinsic: reflects the desire to do something because of external rewards such as awards, money and praise. People who are extrinsically motivated may not enjoy certain activities. They may only wish to engage in certain activities because they wish to receive some external reward.[61] Examples: The writer who only writes poems to be submitted to poetry contests, a person who dislikes sales but accepts a sales position because he/she desires to earn an above average salary, and a person selecting a major in college based on salary and prestige, rather than personal interest. John Keller[62] has devoted his career to researching and understanding motivation in instructional systems. These decades of work constitute a major contribution to the instructional design field. First, by applying motivation theories systematically to design theory. Second, in developing a unique problem-solving process he calls the ARCS Motivation. The ARCS Model of Motivational Design The ARCS Model of Motivational Design was created by John Keller while he was researching ways to supplement the learning process with motivation. The model is based on Tolman's and Lewin's expectancyvalue theory, which presumes that people are motivated to learn if there is value in the knowledge presented (i.e. it fulfills personal needs) and if there is an optimistic expectation for success.[63] The model consists of four main areas: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction. Attention and relevance according to John Keller's ARCS motivational theory are essential to learning. The first 2 of 4 key components for motivating learners, attention and relevance can be considered the backbone of the ARCS theory, the latter components relying upon the former. Attention: The attention mentioned in this theory refers to the interest displayed by learners in taking in the concepts/ideas being taught. This component is split into three categories: perceptual arousal, using surprise or uncertain situations; inquiry arousal, offering challenging questions and/or problems to answer/solve; and variability, using a variety of resources and methods of teaching. Within each of these categories, John Keller has provided further sub-divisions of types of stimuli to grab attention. Grabbing attention is the most important part of the model because it initiates the motivation for the learners. Once learners are interested in a topic, they are willing to invest their time, pay attention, and find out more. Relevance: Relevance, according to Keller, must be established by using language and examples that the learners are familiar with. The three major strategies John Keller presents are goal oriented, motive matching, and familiarity. Like the Attention category, John Keller divided the three major strategies into subcategories, which provide examples of how to make a lesson plan relevant to the learner. Learners will throw concepts to the wayside if their attention cannot be grabbed and sustained and if relevance is not conveyed. Confidence: The confidence aspect of the ARCS model focuses on establishing positive expectations for achieving success among learners. The confidence level of learners is often correlated with motivation and the amount of effort put forth in reaching a performance objective. For this reason, it’s important that learning design provides students with a method for estimating their probability of success. This can be achieved in the form of a syllabus and grading policy, rubrics, or a time estimate to complete tasks. Additionally, confidence is built when positive reinforcement for personal achievements is given through timely, relevant feedback. Satisfaction: Finally, learners must obtain some type of satisfaction or reward from a learning experience. This satisfaction can be from a sense of achievement, praise from a higher-up, or mere entertainment. Feedback and reinforcement are important elements and when learners appreciate the results, they will be motivated to learn. Satisfaction is based upon motivation, which can be intrinsic or extrinsic. To keep learners satisfied, instruction should be designed to allow them to use their newly learned skills as soon as possible in as authentic a setting as possible. Ivan Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Theory Classical conditioning was first described in 1903 by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, and later studied by John B. Watson, an American psychologist. It’s an automatic/reflexive type of learning that occurs through associations between environmental and natural stimuli with the use of a neutral signal before the latter. Now, it constitutes one of the two most notable forms of associative learning, i.e. making a new association between occurring events. The other form is Operant Conditioning that focuses on using either reinforcement or punishment to maximize or minimize a certain behavior. Pavlov’s Dogs While doing research on the digestive system of dogs, Pavlov encountered a phenomenon he labeled “psychic reflexes”. His experiment involved the use of a buzzer or metronome and the subsequent presence of meat powder. He would ring the buzzer, and then observe the dogs’ saliva production at the presence of the food. Over time, however, Pavlov noticed that the dogs would salivate even before the meat powder was presented, as a reaction to the buzzer’s sound. This is what brought the idea of a “conditioned response” to a particular stimulus. In psychology lingo, the meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The buzzer is a neutral stimulus that serves as a bridge until the dog learns to associate it with the food. Then it becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that generates the conditioned response (CR), namely salivation.John B. Watson extended Pavlov’s experiment and applied it to humans. His research involved an 11 month old infant, a white rat and the generation of a loud noise. The goal was to make the baby feel afraid of the rat, by associating the latter with the noise (UCS). Once, the rat was repetitively paired with the noise, the baby started developing a certain fear. One of the experiment’s conclusions was that classical conditioning can cause some phobias or anxiety problems in humans. 4 Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning In order to understand how classical conditioning works, it is important to know its basic principles. 1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)The unconditioned stimulus is the one that automatically triggers a response. For example, if the smell of food makes us hungry, then this smell is the unconditioned stimulus. 2. Unconditioned Response (UCR)The unconditioned response is the unintentional reaction that occurs when a person is triggered by the unconditioned stimulus. In the above mentioned example, it’s the feeling of hunger in response to the smell of the food. 3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS)The conditioned stimulus is the neutral signal that, after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus, triggers the conditioned response. So if we’d repeatedly hear a certain sound together with the smell of the food, then eventually this sound would trigger the conditioned response (the hunger). Consequently, this sound would be the conditioned stimulus. 4. Conditioned Response (CR) The conditioned response is the learned response to the neutral signal, namely the feeling of hunger. 4 Examples of Classical Conditioning 1. Classical conditioning can be applied in the classroom, for the creation of a pleasant environment to help the students overcome their anxieties and fears. For example, if we pair public speaking, which is an anxiety-provoking situation, with pleasant surroundings, then students will eventually learn to stay relaxed and calm during their presentations. 2. Another example of classical conditioning is taste aversion. When we consume too much alcohol, then we usually associate its smell or even sight with the sickness that resulted from its consumption. This is also known as biological preparedness. 3. Classical conditioning can also be applied in a doctor’s office that by definition causes a certain amount of fear. For example, let’s suppose that we regularly have to visit a clinic to get shots; something that takes place in a small room. The shots alone cause an increased heart rate. However, over time the simple visit to the clinic causes an increased heart rate, even before the shot. 4. Another prime example of classical conditioning is after a car accident. If we have been through a car accident, even the sound of squealing brakes, metals crashing and glass breaking will make us cringe or even break into a sweat. Instructional Design Models and Theories: Connectionism Theory 1910 – Thorndike introduces his Laws and Connectionism Theory, which are based on the Active Learning Principles. Check the Instructional Design Models and Theories: Connectionism Theory article and presentation to find more. Edward Thorndike's Connectionism Theory In a report published in 1910 in The Journal of Educational Psychology, entitled “The Contribution of Psychology to Education”, Edward Thorndike –a prominent American psychologist- introduced a set of principles that would come to be known as Thorndike's Laws. According to these Laws, learning is achieved when an individual is able to form associations between a particular stimulus and a response. These are known as “habits”, and can either be encouraged or deterred by external parameters and the frequency an individual is exposed to the stimulus and the response.In a learning environment, Thondike's Laws highlight the importance of rewards and emphasize on the necessity of practice and repetition. More specifically, the Law of Readiness (see below) suggests that a teacher can only instruct a student if that student is willing to be educated. When a student does not show any signs of readiness, a teacher should provide instructions that will help the student develop. Thorndike's Learning Laws 1. Law of effect An individual's response to a specific situation followed by a reward will eventually make those responses stronger. Therefore, the responses become habits when the individual is presented with that particular situation again. Additionally, if a response deters an individual from achieving a reward, or a “rewarding state”, then this response becomes weaker. 2. Law of readiness A series or a set of responses can be linked together in order to achieve a goal. If the person is prevented from achieving this goal, this will cause “annoyance”. 3. Law of exercise Frequently made associations become strengthened. Likewise, rare or sporadic associations become weaker. Thorndike’s Learning Theory Thorndike’s learning theory, however, consists of numerous additional laws: 1. Multiple responses In any given situation, an individual might react in a variety of ways if the initial reaction does not immediately lead to a satisfying result. 2. Set of attitudes Individuals are inclined to react in a particular way. These reactions are unique for species or groups of related species. 3. Prepotency of elements Individuals are able to filter out any irrelevant aspects of a particular situation and respond only to significant parameters that directly affect this situation. 4. Response by analogy Reactions from a previously experienced situation might be transferred to a new one. This is also called Theory of Identical Elements. 5. Associative shifting Sometimes, a reaction to a certain stimulus might shift to a different one. Thorndike’s Connectionism Theory Thorndike also suggested the Connectionism Theory, which is based on the ideas presented by associationism. In this theory, Thorndike hypothesized that certain elements become associated though a similar experience and that more complex ideas can be taught or explained through a series of simplified rules. In this theory, there are four key principles: 1. Learning involves both practice and a reward system (based upon the law of effect). 2. Stimulus and response associations can be linked if they are part of the same “action sequence” (based upon the law of readiness). 3. The transfer of knowledge and learning is based on situations that have been previously experienced by the individual. 4. Intelligence is determined by how many of these associations have been learned and/or acquired Inquiry-based Learning Model 1960s - Joseph Schwab was one of the key founders of the Inquiry-based Learning Model that relies upon the idea that individuals are able to learn by investigating scenarios and problems, and through social experiences. What is Inquiry-based Learning The Inquiry-based Learning Model emerged in the 1960s, during the “discovery learning” movement and relies upon the idea that individuals are able to learn by investigating scenarios and problems, and through social experiences. Rather than having to memorize information from printed materials, instructors encouraged their students to conduct investigations that would satisfy their curiosity, help them broaden their knowledge base and develop their skills and mental frames. It’s important to remember that inquiry-based learning is not a technique or practice per se, but a process that has the potential to increase the intellectual engagement and deep understanding of learners, urging them to: Develop their questioning, research and communication skills Collaborate outside the classroom Solve problems, create solutions, and tackle real-life questions and issues Participate in the creation and amelioration of ideas and knowledge The 5 steps of inquiry-based learning This is why inquiry-based learning includes the following steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Ask questions Probe into various situations Conduct analyses and provide descriptions Communicate findings, verbally or in writing Think about the information and knowledge obtained The principles of inquiry-based learning There are certain principles that govern inquiry-based learning and can be summarized as follows: Principle 1 Learners are in the center of the entire process, while instructors, resources and technology are adequately organized to support them. Principle 2 All learning activities revolve around information-processing skills. Principle 3 Instructors facilitate the learning process, but also seek to learn more about their students and the process of inquiry-based learning. Principle 4 Emphasis should be placed on evaluating the development of information-processing skills and conceptual understanding, and not on the actual content of the field. The 4 forms of inquiry There are four forms of inquiry that are commonly used in inquiry-based instruction: Confirmation inquiry Learners are given a question, as well as a method, to which the end result is already known. The goal is to confirm the results. This enables learners to reinforce already established ideas, and to practice their investigative skills. Structured inquiry Learners are given the question and the method of achieving the result, but the goal is to provide an explanation that is already supported by the evidence gathered during and through the investigative process. Guided inquiry Learners are only given a question. The main goal is to design the method of investigation and then test the question itself. This type of inquiry is not typically as structured as the previously mentioned forms. Open inquiry Learners must form their own questions, design investigative methods, and then carry out the inquiry itself. They must present their results at the end of the process. In an instructional setting, inquiry-based learning can give instructors the opportunity to allow students to fully explore problems and scenarios, so that they can learn from not only the results, but also the process itself. They are encouraged to ask questions, explore their environments, and obtain evidence that support claims and results, and design a convincing argument regarding the way they reached to the end result. Constructivism The basic premise of constructivism is that an individual learner must actively "build" knowledge and skills (e.g., Bruner, 1990) and that information exists within these built constructs rather than in the external environment. [See Ullman (1980) versus Gibson (1979) for an overview of this controversy within the cognitive perspective.] However, all advocates of constructivism agree that it is the individual's processing of stimuli from the environment and the resulting cognitive structures, that produce adaptive behavior, rather than the stimuli themselves (Harnard, 1982). John Dewey (1933/1998) is often cited as the philosophical founder of this approach; Ausubel (1968), Bruner (1990), and Piaget (1972) are considered the chief theorists among the cognitive constructionists, while Vygotsky (1978) is the major theorist among the social constructionists. Activity theory and situated learning are two examples of modern work based on the work of Vygotsky and some of his followers. A major problem is that making connections between thinking (in terms of knowledge, intellectual skills, attitudes, etc.) and behavior has proven very illusive (Doyle, 1997). One reason is that other factors, such as situational variables, emotions, and consequences, all play an important role in the production of overt, adaptive behavior. As Doyle points out Mental representations such as attitudes, mental models, scripts, and schemas are, of course, related to behavior, but the relationship is often complex and counterintuitive. There is also a growing body of evidence that suggests that the mental representations on which decisions and behavior are based can be highly variable depending on subtle aspects of the particular situation or context decision makers are in at any given time (Payne et al., 1992), making it difficult to generalize results across task and domain differences. Until more is known about the form, content, and function of mental models of systems in a particular research setting, assessments of systems thinking interventions should measure both behavioral and cognitive changes. At this point, without a unifying theory as to how the different learning theories interact within a single individual to produce behavior, we have to study these different viewpoints independently and then piecemeal them together into a school curriculum. However, acceptance of a particular viewpoint provides a different starting point for curriculum development. Fennimore and Tinzmann (1990) suggest a difference between a behaviorally-oriented curriculum in which knowledge and skills are taught discretely and then inductively connected versus the constructivistically-oriented classroom in which students acquire content while carrying out tasks requiring higher-order thinking: An example should help clarify this characteristic of a thinking curriculum. Summarizing is a common skill learned in school. In conventional curricula, young students frequently are expected to learn how to summarize by first learning each "step" in the summarizing process. They are taught these steps one at a time. Ample time is given to practice the first step; for example, categorizing items or activities described in a text under a more inclusive label. Indeed, they may complete numerous worksheets on categorizing. Then, the teacher may teach them a second "step;" for example, deleting redundant information. Again, the students practice. This approach continues until students have been taught all the steps or subprocesses thought to be involved in summarizing. In short, curriculum tends to routinize the task. Finally, students are asked to put all these subskills together. Unfortunately, many students cannot do this---they are stuck at the subskill level, each of which they might perform beautifully, but which they cannot integrate into a smooth process of summarizing. In contrast, in a thinking curriculum, summarizing would be conceived and taught as a holistic process. Rather than fragmenting the process, it would be taught in a context or environment in which students can succeed. For young children, this might mean asking them first to summarize relatively short paragraphs that deal with information with which they are very familiar. The teacher may also ask students to work collaboratively to summarize information at this initial learning stage. As students gain skill and confidence in summarizing, the teacher would ask them to summarize longer paragraphs, perhaps containing less familiar information. In summary, a thinking curriculum always treats tasks as indivisible wholes; variations that acknowledge the novice status of the learner are changes the teacher can make in the environment. Bruner (see Kearsley, 1999) provides the following principles of constructivistic learning: 1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness). 2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization). 3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given). Advocates of a constructivistic approach suggest that educators first consider the knowledge and experiences students bring with them to the learning task. The school curriculum should then be built so that students can expand and develop this knowledge and experience by connecting them to new learning. Advocates of the behavioral approach, on the other hand, advocate first deciding what knowledge or skills students should acquire and then developing curriculum that will provide for their development. Using a framework developed by Dunn and Larson (1998) to explain the process of implementing elementary level technology curricula, Alexandria and Larson (2002) specified ten events that provide the foundation for a constructivistic approach to instruction. They categorized these events into five components of an effective constructivistic lesson: investigation, invention, implementation, evaluation, and celebration. Investigation 1. Contextualizing: The teacher explains the process to the whole class, then works with students in small groups to help them connect the students previous experiences to the task at hand. 2. Clarifying: The students discuss the project among themselves in small groups and the teacher facilitates students as they determine what they need to know in order to complete the project. 3. Inquiring: Students begin the process of acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills they might need to complete the project; teachers facilitate by asking questions and helping students identify and understand credible resources. Invention and Initial Implementation 4. Planning: Students in each group begin to organize their knowledge and develop some initial plans as to how to approach the project. 5. Realizing: Students develop a first draft or beginning product that will meet the stated criteria for the project. Each small group will develop an original approach and no two will look exactly alike. Further Implementation and Evaluation 6. Testing: The students check their project against the criteria to see if it meets the specifications. It is expected that the first attempt will need some or several modifications. 7. Modifying: Students rework their project in terms of deficiencies they may have identified. They then retest and modify until they have a finished project that meets the stated criteria. 8. Interpreting: Students describe the value of the project relative to their backgrounds and experience. 9. Reflecting: Students broaden their evaluations of the project and put it in larger context. Celebration 10. Celebration: Students present their projects to the larger group while the larger group acknowledges the value of the effort and results of the group. Those advocating a constructivisitic approach should consider there are a variety of principles from operant conditioning and information processing learning theories that can be utilized within this approach. For example, when mediating a student’s learning it is certainly appropriate to teach a specific skill using direct instruction, observe students practicing the skill, and providing corrective feedback. The major issue is whether to start with a curriculum that is taught step-by-step in an inductive manner as suggested by the behaviorists or to start with the student’s knowledge and understandings and help the child fill in gaps necessary to solve a situation-specific problem as suggested by the constructivists. Principles of learning from an information processing perspective such as recognizing the limits of short-term memory, providing many opportunities for students to connect prior knowledge to current learning, and recognizing the need for spaced practice can also be implemented within a constructivistic approach. Again, the major distinction is in where to start: with a predesigned curriculum or with the student’s experiences and knowledge base. What is the correct approach? In my view the answer is "YES." If we start with the student's knowledge base before we have established desired end goals, there is a tendency to have the students simply “make progress,” thereby limiting students who are not adequately prepared. These students may develop adequate thinking skills, but can have large gaps in their knowledge and skills. On the other hand, if we focus only on desired end goals, especially knowledge goals, without consideration of the student's acquired knowledge and background, we run the risk of developing knowledge and skills that have no meaning to the learner and are therefore easily forgotten.