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The ASSURE Model for Lesson Plan Design
The ASSURE model is an ISD (Instructional Systems Design) process that was modified to be used by teachers in the
regular classroom The ISD process is one in which teachers and trainers can use to design and develop the most
appropriate learning environment for their students. You can use this process in writing your lesson plans and in
improving teaching and learning.
Analyze Learners (5 points)
The first step in planning is to specifically define your audience. You must know the learners if you are to select
the best strategies to meet the objectives you have set. The audience can be analyzed in terms of their general
characteristics (grade level, age) and specific entry competencies (prior knowledge, skills, and attitudes about
the topic, and learning styles).
State Objectives (5 points)
The next step in planning is to specifically state the objectives for the lesson or presentation. Objectives must be
stated in terms of what the learner (not the teacher or presenter) will do (stated in behavioral terms) as the result
of instruction. Your lesson should include 2-3 specific objectives. Objectives typically contain 4 basic parts:
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a simple statement that describes the intended Audience. For example,
"The first grade student will . . . " or "The tenth grade English student will
..."
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a statement of the expected student Behavior that will occur as a result of
your instruction. This behavior needs to be observable, so it can be
evaluated. For example, action verbs like add, alphabetize, arrange, build,
choose, classify, contrast, define, describe, diagram, identify, kick, label,
locate, make, multiply, name, produce, pronounce, select, sketch, sort,
specify, state, throw, underline, verbalize, and write are very useful. Avoid
words like know, appreciate, grasp, or understand. These do not represent
observable behavior. Remember that the behavior stated is that of the
student, not the teacher.
a statement of the Conditions under which performance is to be observed.
What resources will the student be allowed to use (e.g., a map, a
dictionery)? What tools or equipment will the student be allowed to use?
Will the student be allowed to use notes or an outline when writing an
essay?
a statement of the Degree of accuracy or proficiency the learner must
display in order to move on. The criteria should be based on some realworld requirement, not stated in terms of a score on a multiple choice test.
Time and accuracy are frequently meaningful for many objectives. Should
an eleventh grade English student be able to write a five paragraph theme
within 50 minutes? If a third grade student can complete at least seven of
ten single-digit multiplication problems, can the teacher assume he or she
has mastered the concept?
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Select Media and Materials (5 points)
Now you have set the beginning point (the audience's present knowledge, skills, and attitudes) and the ending
point (objectives) of your instruction. Now your job is the build an instructional bridge that will connect the two
points. You may select available materials, modify existing materials, or design new materials to help
accomplish this task. You may select several different types of media to use with the unit. Any of the
media/technology discussed in the text will be appropriate.
Utilize Media and Materials (5 points)
Now you must decide how the materials will be used by the students. Preview the materials and practice the
lesson. Next, prepare the room and be sure the necessary equipment and facilities are available and ready for
your use before you actually use the lesson.
Require Learner Performance (2 points)
Learners need to practice what they have learned. Describe how the learners will actively use the materials you
have selected. Correct responses should be reinforced. There should be activities included in the lesson or that
allow learners to respond and receive feedback before any type of evaluation is administered.
Evaluate and Revise (3 points)
After instruction, you must evaluate the entire instructional process. Did the learners meet the objectives? Did
the media/materials assist the learners in reaching those objectives? Could all learners use the materials
properly? If there are discrepancies between what you intended and what actually happened during the lesson,
make appropriate revisions before making the lesson again.
The ARCS Model of Motivational Design
Motivation is defined as an internal drive that activates behavior and gives it direction. The term motivation
theory is concerned with the process that describe why and how human behavior is activated and directed.
Motivation Concepts Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Instrinsic: defined as the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable
consequence. When intrinsically motivated a person is moved to act for the fun or challenge entailed
rather than because of external rewards.[60] Intrinsic motivation reflects the desire to do something
because it is enjoyable. If we are intrinsically motivated, we would not be worried about external
rewards such as praise.
Examples: Writing short stories because you enjoy writing them, reading a book because you are curious
about the topic, and playing chess because you enjoy effortful thinking

Extrinsic: reflects the desire to do something because of external rewards such as awards, money and
praise. People who are extrinsically motivated may not enjoy certain activities. They may only wish to
engage in certain activities because they wish to receive some external reward.[61]
Examples: The writer who only writes poems to be submitted to poetry contests, a person who dislikes
sales but accepts a sales position because he/she desires to earn an above average salary, and a person
selecting a major in college based on salary and prestige, rather than personal interest.
John Keller[62] has devoted his career to researching and understanding motivation in instructional systems.
These decades of work constitute a major contribution to the instructional design field. First, by applying
motivation theories systematically to design theory. Second, in developing a unique problem-solving process he
calls the ARCS Motivation.
The ARCS Model of Motivational Design
The ARCS Model of Motivational Design was created by John Keller while he was researching ways to
supplement the learning process with motivation. The model is based on Tolman's and Lewin's expectancyvalue theory, which presumes that people are motivated to learn if there is value in the knowledge presented
(i.e. it fulfills personal needs) and if there is an optimistic expectation for success.[63] The model consists of four
main areas: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction.
Attention and relevance according to John Keller's ARCS motivational theory are essential to learning. The first
2 of 4 key components for motivating learners, attention and relevance can be considered the backbone of the
ARCS theory, the latter components relying upon the former.
Attention: The attention mentioned in this theory refers to the interest displayed by learners in taking in the
concepts/ideas being taught. This component is split into three categories: perceptual arousal, using surprise or
uncertain situations; inquiry arousal, offering challenging questions and/or problems to answer/solve; and
variability, using a variety of resources and methods of teaching. Within each of these categories, John Keller
has provided further sub-divisions of types of stimuli to grab attention. Grabbing attention is the most important
part of the model because it initiates the motivation for the learners. Once learners are interested in a topic, they
are willing to invest their time, pay attention, and find out more.
Relevance: Relevance, according to Keller, must be established by using language and examples that the
learners are familiar with. The three major strategies John Keller presents are goal oriented, motive matching,
and familiarity. Like the Attention category, John Keller divided the three major strategies into subcategories,
which provide examples of how to make a lesson plan relevant to the learner. Learners will throw concepts to
the wayside if their attention cannot be grabbed and sustained and if relevance is not conveyed.
Confidence: The confidence aspect of the ARCS model focuses on establishing positive expectations for
achieving success among learners. The confidence level of learners is often correlated with motivation and the
amount of effort put forth in reaching a performance objective. For this reason, it’s important that learning
design provides students with a method for estimating their probability of success. This can be achieved in the
form of a syllabus and grading policy, rubrics, or a time estimate to complete tasks. Additionally, confidence is
built when positive reinforcement for personal achievements is given through timely, relevant feedback.
Satisfaction: Finally, learners must obtain some type of satisfaction or reward from a learning experience. This
satisfaction can be from a sense of achievement, praise from a higher-up, or mere entertainment. Feedback and
reinforcement are important elements and when learners appreciate the results, they will be motivated to learn.
Satisfaction is based upon motivation, which can be intrinsic or extrinsic. To keep learners satisfied, instruction
should be designed to allow them to use their newly learned skills as soon as possible in as authentic a setting as
possible.
Ivan Pavlov's Classical Conditioning Theory
Classical conditioning was first described in 1903 by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, and later studied by
John B. Watson, an American psychologist. It’s an automatic/reflexive type of learning that occurs through
associations between environmental and natural stimuli with the use of a neutral signal before the latter. Now, it
constitutes one of the two most notable forms of associative learning, i.e. making a new association between
occurring events. The other form is Operant Conditioning that focuses on using either reinforcement or
punishment to maximize or minimize a certain behavior.
Pavlov’s Dogs While doing research on the digestive system of dogs, Pavlov encountered a phenomenon he
labeled “psychic reflexes”. His experiment involved the use of a buzzer or metronome and the subsequent
presence of meat powder. He would ring the buzzer, and then observe the dogs’ saliva production at the
presence of the food. Over time, however, Pavlov noticed that the dogs would salivate even before the meat
powder was presented, as a reaction to the buzzer’s sound. This is what brought the idea of a “conditioned
response” to a particular stimulus. In psychology lingo, the meat powder is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The buzzer is a neutral stimulus that serves as a
bridge until the dog learns to associate it with the food. Then it becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that
generates the conditioned response (CR), namely salivation.John B. Watson extended Pavlov’s experiment and
applied it to humans. His research involved an 11 month old infant, a white rat and the generation of a loud
noise. The goal was to make the baby feel afraid of the rat, by associating the latter with the noise (UCS). Once,
the rat was repetitively paired with the noise, the baby started developing a certain fear. One of the experiment’s
conclusions was that classical conditioning can cause some phobias or anxiety problems in humans.
4 Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning
In order to understand how classical conditioning works, it is important to know its basic principles.
1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)The unconditioned stimulus is the one that automatically triggers a
response. For example, if the smell of food makes us hungry, then this smell is the unconditioned
stimulus.
2. Unconditioned Response (UCR)The unconditioned response is the unintentional reaction that occurs
when a person is triggered by the unconditioned stimulus. In the above mentioned example, it’s the
feeling of hunger in response to the smell of the food.
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS)The conditioned stimulus is the neutral signal that, after being paired with
the unconditioned stimulus, triggers the conditioned response. So if we’d repeatedly hear a certain sound
together with the smell of the food, then eventually this sound would trigger the conditioned response
(the hunger). Consequently, this sound would be the conditioned stimulus.
4. Conditioned Response (CR) The conditioned response is the learned response to the neutral signal,
namely the feeling of hunger.
4 Examples of Classical Conditioning
1. Classical conditioning can be applied in the classroom, for the creation of a pleasant environment to help
the students overcome their anxieties and fears. For example, if we pair public speaking, which is an
anxiety-provoking situation, with pleasant surroundings, then students will eventually learn to stay
relaxed and calm during their presentations.
2. Another example of classical conditioning is taste aversion. When we consume too much alcohol, then
we usually associate its smell or even sight with the sickness that resulted from its consumption. This is
also known as biological preparedness.
3. Classical conditioning can also be applied in a doctor’s office that by definition causes a certain amount
of fear. For example, let’s suppose that we regularly have to visit a clinic to get shots; something that
takes place in a small room. The shots alone cause an increased heart rate. However, over time the
simple visit to the clinic causes an increased heart rate, even before the shot.
4. Another prime example of classical conditioning is after a car accident. If we have been through a car
accident, even the sound of squealing brakes, metals crashing and glass breaking will make us cringe or
even break into a sweat.
Instructional Design Models and Theories: Connectionism Theory
1910 – Thorndike introduces his Laws and Connectionism Theory, which are based on the Active Learning
Principles. Check the Instructional Design Models and Theories: Connectionism Theory article and
presentation to find more.
Edward Thorndike's Connectionism Theory
In a report published in 1910 in The Journal of Educational Psychology, entitled “The Contribution of
Psychology to Education”, Edward Thorndike –a prominent American psychologist- introduced a set of
principles that would come to be known as Thorndike's Laws. According to these Laws, learning is achieved
when an individual is able to form associations between a particular stimulus and a response. These are known
as “habits”, and can either be encouraged or deterred by external parameters and the frequency an individual is
exposed to the stimulus and the response.In a learning environment, Thondike's Laws highlight the importance
of rewards and emphasize on the necessity of practice and repetition. More specifically, the Law of Readiness
(see below) suggests that a teacher can only instruct a student if that student is willing to be educated. When a
student does not show any signs of readiness, a teacher should provide instructions that will help the student
develop.
Thorndike's Learning Laws
1. Law of effect
An individual's response to a specific situation followed by a reward will eventually make those
responses stronger. Therefore, the responses become habits when the individual is presented with that
particular situation again. Additionally, if a response deters an individual from achieving a reward, or a
“rewarding state”, then this response becomes weaker.
2. Law of readiness
A series or a set of responses can be linked together in order to achieve a goal. If the person is prevented
from achieving this goal, this will cause “annoyance”.
3. Law of exercise
Frequently made associations become strengthened. Likewise, rare or sporadic associations become
weaker.
Thorndike’s Learning Theory
Thorndike’s learning theory, however, consists of numerous additional laws:
1. Multiple responses
In any given situation, an individual might react in a variety of ways if the initial reaction does not
immediately lead to a satisfying result.
2. Set of attitudes
Individuals are inclined to react in a particular way. These reactions are unique for species or groups of
related species.
3. Prepotency of elements
Individuals are able to filter out any irrelevant aspects of a particular situation and respond only to
significant parameters that directly affect this situation.
4. Response by analogy
Reactions from a previously experienced situation might be transferred to a new one. This is also called
Theory of Identical Elements.
5. Associative shifting
Sometimes, a reaction to a certain stimulus might shift to a different one.
Thorndike’s Connectionism Theory
Thorndike also suggested the Connectionism Theory, which is based on the ideas presented by associationism.
In this theory, Thorndike hypothesized that certain elements become associated though a similar experience and
that more complex ideas can be taught or explained through a series of simplified rules. In this theory, there are
four key principles:
1. Learning involves both practice and a reward system (based upon the law of effect).
2. Stimulus and response associations can be linked if they are part of the same “action sequence” (based
upon the law of readiness).
3. The transfer of knowledge and learning is based on situations that have been previously experienced by
the individual.
4. Intelligence is determined by how many of these associations have been learned and/or acquired
Inquiry-based Learning Model
1960s - Joseph Schwab was one of the key founders of the Inquiry-based Learning Model that relies upon the idea that
individuals are able to learn by investigating scenarios and problems, and through social experiences.
What is Inquiry-based Learning
The Inquiry-based Learning Model emerged in the 1960s, during the “discovery learning” movement and relies
upon the idea that individuals are able to learn by investigating scenarios and problems, and through social
experiences. Rather than having to memorize information from printed materials, instructors encouraged their
students to conduct investigations that would satisfy their curiosity, help them broaden their knowledge base
and develop their skills and mental frames.
It’s important to remember that inquiry-based learning is not a technique or practice per se, but a process that
has the potential to increase the intellectual engagement and deep understanding of learners, urging them to:
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Develop their questioning, research and communication skills
Collaborate outside the classroom
Solve problems, create solutions, and tackle real-life questions and issues
Participate in the creation and amelioration of ideas and knowledge
The 5 steps of inquiry-based learning
This is why inquiry-based learning includes the following steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Ask questions
Probe into various situations
Conduct analyses and provide descriptions
Communicate findings, verbally or in writing
Think about the information and knowledge obtained
The principles of inquiry-based learning
There are certain principles that govern inquiry-based learning and can be summarized as follows:
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Principle 1
Learners are in the center of the entire process, while instructors, resources and technology are
adequately organized to support them.
Principle 2
All learning activities revolve around information-processing skills.
Principle 3
Instructors facilitate the learning process, but also seek to learn more about their students and the
process of inquiry-based learning.
Principle 4
Emphasis should be placed on evaluating the development of information-processing skills and
conceptual understanding, and not on the actual content of the field.
The 4 forms of inquiry
There are four forms of inquiry that are commonly used in inquiry-based instruction:
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Confirmation inquiry
Learners are given a question, as well as a method, to which the end result is already known. The goal is
to confirm the results. This enables learners to reinforce already established ideas, and to practice their
investigative skills.
Structured inquiry
Learners are given the question and the method of achieving the result, but the goal is to provide an
explanation that is already supported by the evidence gathered during and through the investigative
process.
Guided inquiry
Learners are only given a question. The main goal is to design the method of investigation and then test
the question itself. This type of inquiry is not typically as structured as the previously mentioned forms.
Open inquiry
Learners must form their own questions, design investigative methods, and then carry out the inquiry
itself. They must present their results at the end of the process.
In an instructional setting, inquiry-based learning can give instructors the opportunity to allow students to fully
explore problems and scenarios, so that they can learn from not only the results, but also the process itself. They
are encouraged to ask questions, explore their environments, and obtain evidence that support claims and
results, and design a convincing argument regarding the way they reached to the end result.
Constructivism
The basic premise of constructivism is that an individual learner must actively "build" knowledge and skills
(e.g., Bruner, 1990) and that information exists within these built constructs rather than in the external
environment. [See Ullman (1980) versus Gibson (1979) for an overview of this controversy within the cognitive
perspective.] However, all advocates of constructivism agree that it is the individual's processing of stimuli
from the environment and the resulting cognitive structures, that produce adaptive behavior, rather than the
stimuli themselves (Harnard, 1982). John Dewey (1933/1998) is often cited as the philosophical founder of this
approach; Ausubel (1968), Bruner (1990), and Piaget (1972) are considered the chief theorists among the
cognitive constructionists, while Vygotsky (1978) is the major theorist among the social constructionists.
Activity theory and situated learning are two examples of modern work based on the work of Vygotsky and
some of his followers.
A major problem is that making connections between thinking (in terms of knowledge, intellectual skills,
attitudes, etc.) and behavior has proven very illusive (Doyle, 1997). One reason is that other factors, such as
situational variables, emotions, and consequences, all play an important role in the production of overt, adaptive
behavior. As Doyle points out
Mental representations such as attitudes, mental models, scripts, and schemas are, of course, related to
behavior, but the relationship is often complex and counterintuitive. There is also a growing body of
evidence that suggests that the mental representations on which decisions and behavior are based can be
highly variable depending on subtle aspects of the particular situation or context decision makers are in
at any given time (Payne et al., 1992), making it difficult to generalize results across task and domain
differences. Until more is known about the form, content, and function of mental models of systems in a
particular research setting, assessments of systems thinking interventions should measure both
behavioral and cognitive changes.
At this point, without a unifying theory as to how the different learning theories interact within a single
individual to produce behavior, we have to study these different viewpoints independently and then piecemeal
them together into a school curriculum. However, acceptance of a particular viewpoint provides a different
starting point for curriculum development. Fennimore and Tinzmann (1990) suggest a difference between a
behaviorally-oriented curriculum in which knowledge and skills are taught discretely and then inductively
connected versus the constructivistically-oriented classroom in which students acquire content while carrying
out tasks requiring higher-order thinking:
An example should help clarify this characteristic of a thinking curriculum. Summarizing is a common
skill learned in school. In conventional curricula, young students frequently are expected to learn how to
summarize by first learning each "step" in the summarizing process. They are taught these steps one at a
time. Ample time is given to practice the first step; for example, categorizing items or activities
described in a text under a more inclusive label. Indeed, they may complete numerous worksheets on
categorizing. Then, the teacher may teach them a second "step;" for example, deleting redundant
information. Again, the students practice. This approach continues until students have been taught all the
steps or subprocesses thought to be involved in summarizing. In short, curriculum tends to routinize the
task. Finally, students are asked to put all these subskills together. Unfortunately, many students cannot
do this---they are stuck at the subskill level, each of which they might perform beautifully, but which
they cannot integrate into a smooth process of summarizing.
In contrast, in a thinking curriculum, summarizing would be conceived and taught as a holistic process.
Rather than fragmenting the process, it would be taught in a context or environment in which students
can succeed. For young children, this might mean asking them first to summarize relatively short
paragraphs that deal with information with which they are very familiar. The teacher may also ask
students to work collaboratively to summarize information at this initial learning stage. As students gain
skill and confidence in summarizing, the teacher would ask them to summarize longer paragraphs,
perhaps containing less familiar information. In summary, a thinking curriculum always treats tasks as
indivisible wholes; variations that acknowledge the novice status of the learner are changes the teacher
can make in the environment.
Bruner (see Kearsley, 1999) provides the following principles of constructivistic learning:
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing
and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the
information given).
Advocates of a constructivistic approach suggest that educators first consider the knowledge and experiences
students bring with them to the learning task. The school curriculum should then be built so that students can
expand and develop this knowledge and experience by connecting them to new learning. Advocates of the
behavioral approach, on the other hand, advocate first deciding what knowledge or skills students should
acquire and then developing curriculum that will provide for their development.
Using a framework developed by Dunn and Larson (1998) to explain the process of implementing elementary
level technology curricula, Alexandria and Larson (2002) specified ten events that provide the foundation for a
constructivistic approach to instruction. They categorized these events into five components of an effective
constructivistic lesson: investigation, invention, implementation, evaluation, and celebration.
Investigation
1. Contextualizing: The teacher explains the process to the whole class, then works with students in small
groups to help them connect the students previous experiences to the task at hand.
2. Clarifying: The students discuss the project among themselves in small groups and the teacher facilitates
students as they determine what they need to know in order to complete the project.
3. Inquiring: Students begin the process of acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills they might need
to complete the project; teachers facilitate by asking questions and helping students identify and
understand credible resources.
Invention and Initial Implementation
4. Planning: Students in each group begin to organize their knowledge and develop some initial plans as to
how to approach the project.
5. Realizing: Students develop a first draft or beginning product that will meet the stated criteria for the
project. Each small group will develop an original approach and no two will look exactly alike.
Further Implementation and Evaluation
6. Testing: The students check their project against the criteria to see if it meets the specifications. It is
expected that the first attempt will need some or several modifications.
7. Modifying: Students rework their project in terms of deficiencies they may have identified. They then
retest and modify until they have a finished project that meets the stated criteria.
8. Interpreting: Students describe the value of the project relative to their backgrounds and experience.
9. Reflecting: Students broaden their evaluations of the project and put it in larger context.
Celebration
10. Celebration: Students present their projects to the larger group while the larger group acknowledges the
value of the effort and results of the group.
Those advocating a constructivisitic approach should consider there are a variety of principles from operant
conditioning and information processing learning theories that can be utilized within this approach. For
example, when mediating a student’s learning it is certainly appropriate to teach a specific skill using direct
instruction, observe students practicing the skill, and providing corrective feedback. The major issue is whether
to start with a curriculum that is taught step-by-step in an inductive manner as suggested by the behaviorists or
to start with the student’s knowledge and understandings and help the child fill in gaps necessary to solve a
situation-specific problem as suggested by the constructivists.
Principles of learning from an information processing perspective such as recognizing the limits of short-term
memory, providing many opportunities for students to connect prior knowledge to current learning, and
recognizing the need for spaced practice can also be implemented within a constructivistic approach. Again, the
major distinction is in where to start: with a predesigned curriculum or with the student’s experiences and
knowledge base.
What is the correct approach? In my view the answer is "YES." If we start with the student's knowledge base
before we have established desired end goals, there is a tendency to have the students simply “make progress,”
thereby limiting students who are not adequately prepared. These students may develop adequate thinking
skills, but can have large gaps in their knowledge and skills. On the other hand, if we focus only on desired end
goals, especially knowledge goals, without consideration of the student's acquired knowledge and background,
we run the risk of developing knowledge and skills that have no meaning to the learner and are therefore easily
forgotten.