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Post-classical period (600 C. E. - 1450 C.E.) CHAPTER 6 – THE RISE OF ISLAM ARABIAN GEOGRAPHY The Arabian peninsula’s geography had an enormous impact on its development. Surrounding bodies of water like the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean allowed contact to the east and west with cultures of the Middle East, Africa, Persia, and India. ARABIAN GEOGRAPHY The western coast of Arabia has high mountain ranges that help create limited rainfall for agriculture. There is a broad plateau stretching throughout the center of the peninsula with several oasis towns and settlements. However, the vast majority of the peninsula is marked by barren and inhospitable deserts, earning the peninsula the nickname of “The Empty Quarter” PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA “All about us is an iron wilderness; a bare and black shining beach of heated volcanic stones…stubborn as heavy matter, lying out eternally under the sanddriving desert wind.” Chronicle of early Arabian traveler. INHABITANTS OF PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA (#1) Most of Arabia was inhabited by Bedouin people groups. These nomadic cultures were built around herding and caravan trade routes across the Arabian peninsula. Bedouin shepherd BEDOUIN LIFESTYLE (#2) The economic structure and culture of bedouin tribes revolved around camel and goat herding. Camels were also vitally important for conducting trade over vast and arid distances in Arabia and North Africa. Bedouins lived in kin-related clan groups. These clans migrated throughout the peninsula looking for watering holes and grazing lands for their herds. The harsh terrain and climate made dependence upon the clan vital and therefore tight bonds of loyalty knit these clans together. A CYCLE OF VENGENCE (#3) Due to the scarcity of resources, control of the watering holes and pasturelands created fierce rivalries and tension between clans. Warfare between clans was common and expected. Over the years a cycle of war, vengeance and death emerged between clans. A CYCLE OF VENGENCE (#3) Tensions were so high that many times the simplest disagreement or feud led to all-out warfare between clans. Common examples included a verbal insult and loss in a horse race. Of course, when a clan’s warriors were killed, it was required that revenge be taken. DIVISION (#4) The reality of this intense rivalry and hatred was that pre-Islamic Arabia was extremely divided among the clans with no sense of political unity. As a result, outside forces from Africa, Judea, and Persia constantly exploited these divisions for their own economic gains. MECCA AND MEDINA (#5) There were a few important cities in Arabia such as Mecca and Medina. Each developed in close relation to desert oases for obvious reasons. Mecca was the most important city due to the fact that it was the site of the Ka’ba, the holiest shrine in pre-Islamic Arabia. MECCA AND MEDINA (#5) Prior to Islam, most Arabians were polytheists. The Ka’ba housed the many different statues of the various deities of Arabia. Because it was of such religious significance, it was expected to be a center of peace and stability. Clan feuds and violence were not allowed in this holy city of Mecca. This allowed Mecca to become very wealthy since people felt free to trade and conduct business safely. MECCA AND MEDINA (#6-7) Mecca was dominated by the Umayyad clan of the Quraysh tribe. They were probably the most powerful clan in Arabia due to their control of Mecca’s wealth. (#6) The other important city in Arabia was Medina (at the time, known as Yathrib). (#7) Medina was however, governed by several rival clans, leading to much violence and not nearly as much wealth as Mecca. (#7) Naturally, a competition emerged between the two cities for political and economic power. ARABIAN ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION One can see that Arabian economy depended largely on the agricultural cities scattered throughout the peninsula as well as the caravan trade routes that connected these cities. WOMEN’S ROLE IS PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA (#8) Like most nomadic communities that we will discuss in this class, there tended to be greater freedoms for Bedouin women compared to their counterparts in neighboring areas like the Byzantine or Sasanian (Persian) realms. They had important roles in tribe in terms of milking camels, weaving cloth, and raising children. Most tribes were matrilineal, because men were frequently on the move. They could have multiple marriage partners in many cases and did not have to wear a veil or practice seclusion. They also gave advice in tribal councils and composed poetry. PRE-ISLAMIC BEDOUIN RELIGION (#9) Religion in Arabia prior to Islam was primarily polytheistic and animistic. Some tribes, like the Quraysh, worshipped a supreme god named Allah, but they also acknowledged the existence of many different dieties. Many of the gods related to either the night or natural features (caves, pure springs, groves of trees) that offered respite from the harsh daytime climate. Finally, the religion provided no sense of moral or ethical guidance and was not a very important aspect of daily life. CONTACTS BEYOND ARABIA (#10) Because of their proximity to the Middle East, and the importance of trade across Arabia, the peoples of the peninsula were aware of monotheistic faiths like Judaism or Christianity. Many elements of these faiths were incorporated into Islam as that religion began. MUHAMMAD’S EARLY LIFE (#11) Muhammad’s early life was difficult, to say the least. His father died before he was born, and his mother died before the age of 10. Though he was raised by his relatives, he knew the hardship of being and orphan and not belonging. Raised by his uncle, he began to lead a life as a merchant, making several trips throughout Arabia and beyond. In his 20’s, he began working for a wealthy merchant’s widow named Khadijah, whom he later married. MUHAMMAD’S EARLY LIFE (#11) As a merchant, Muhammad would have been exposed to the political division all throughout Arabia between warring clans and tribes. He also knew that many tribes lived in harsh poverty at the expense of the wealthy clans that dominated the cities and urban centers of Arabia. Though economically comfortable and sociallt respected, Muhammad was dissatisfied with his life and troubled by his social surroundings. HIRA, THE CAVE OF MUHAMMAD’S 1ST REVELATION He began spending more time in isolation, meditating in the hills surrounding Mecca. According to Islamic accounts, in 610 C.E., he received his first of many revelations from Allah (delivered by the angel Gabriel). The revelations of the next several months and years would be communicated to the peoples of Arabia in the written accounts that come to make up the Quran, the holy text of Islam. MUHAMMAD’S REVELATIONS (#11) TROUBLE FOR MUHAMMAD (#12) As Muhammad began to teach his new religion to those in and around Mecca, several converted to the new faith. However, there was significant opposition, especially from the clan who dominated Meccan life, the Umayyads. The main problem with his new teaching was an economic one for the Umayyads. If people believe his new message, they will also believe other dieties are false, and stop coming to Mecca to worship at the Ka’ba. This Umayyads would miss out on the trade that came with that important pilgrimmage. When Muhammad refused to stop preaching this new belief, the Umayyads began plotting his assassination. MUHAMMAD’S FLIGHT, THE HIJRAH (#13) Because his life was increasingly threatened, Muhammad had to leave Mecca. But where to? The city of Yathrib was wrought with violent disputes and clashes. They had heard of Muhammad’s reputation and prestige and offered him safe passage to their city to negotiate their disputes. In 622 C.E., the small Muslim community fled to Yathrib. The city changes its name to Medina shortly after, meaning “city of the prophet”. This marks the first year in the MUHAMMAD’S RETURN TO MECCA (#14) For the next 7 years, Mecca and Medina are embroiled in a war for control of Arabian trade and religion. These conflicts were known as the Ridda Wars. Though he was no longer in Mecca, he was an even larger threat to the Umayyads as their competitor city, Medina, grew in strength from his leadership. Muhammad led his followers into battle, outnumbered, yet they emerged victoriuos and signed a peace treaty with the Umayyad’s. He returns to Mecca victorious in 629 C.E. He goes straight to the Ka’ba and destroys all the idols housed there. He procalims it the holiest shrine for the new faith and issues the first call to prayer in this holy city, ISLAM’S OFFER TO BEDOUIN PEOPLES (#15 16) Islam offered much to the peoples of Arabia: 1) A monotheistic faith that belonged to no one tribe and transcended their divisions. 2) A distinctly Arab faith to rival Christianity and Judaism. 3) A belief in uncompromising monotheism. No trinitarian view of God and no intermediaries between believers and Allah. 4) UNITY – The faith created a community bound not by blood, but belief. Islam calls this the umma, or community of faithful. 5) Equality of believers and a moral code which stressed responsibility of believers to care for one another (zakat). 6) A legal code of Islamic law that was based off the Quran. THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM (#17) The faith of Islam also incorporated into its beliefs a set of rituals and beliefs known as the “five pillars” of Islam. They were: 1) The Shahada (confession of faith) – “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet.” 2) Prayer – 5x a day facing Mecca. 3) Fasting – during the holy month of Ramadan 4) Zakat – a tithe for charity that promoted community and social responsibility. 5) Hajj – pilgrimmage to the holy city of Mecca to worship at the Ka’ba. THE SHAHADA THE HAJJ MUHAMMAD’S DEATH SPARKS CRISIS (#18) All of the success of the Muslim conquests under Muhammad was not to be enjoyed by him for too long. Muhammad grew ill while in Mecca and dies in 632 C.E., initiating a crisis within the Muslim community. Many Bedouin tribes abandoned the new faith that had just lost its leader. The situation was worsened by the fact that Muhammad had not clearly appointed a successor or a method by which to choose one. THE CALIPHATE (#19) With no clear leadership announced, there was bound to be disagreement over who would lead the Muslim community following Muhammad’s death….and there was! The title of caliph (“Successor”) came down to 2 men: 1)Abu Bakr – a close friend and one of the earliest converts to the faith. 2)Ali – Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law. ARAB RAIDS OUTSIDE OF ARABIAN PENINSULA (#20 AND 22) Over the course of the next several years, Arab forces, unified by the faith of Islam, continued their expansion out of Arabia. Their raids into the Byzantine and Sasanian realms proved that those empires were severely weakened. The Sasanian Empire was conquered quickly due to their failure to take the invasions seriously. The Byzantine Empire took the threat more seriously, but had numerous divisions internally. In fact, Christian branches like the Copts and Nestorians were frequently persecuted and heavily taxed by the Byzantines, so they welcomed Arab invasions which promised not only toleration, but less taxes! Arab attacks brought huge gains for the growing empire. EXPANSION OF THE MUSLIM EMPIRE (ALSO ON P. 132) MOTIVATING FACTORS FOR CONQUEST (#21) There were numerous reasons for Arab conquests outside the peninsula: 1) Islam provided unity for the first time in Arab history. 2) Conquests were motivation for revenge against other empires that had always considered the Arabs as backward and uncivilized. 3) The conquests were a good way to release the pent-up energies of this martial Bedouin culture. 4) Above all, conquests promised increased wealth from the rich farmlands and cities that came under Arab rule. * It is important to remember that conquest WERE NOT about forcible conversion to the faith of Islam. THE SUNNI/SHI’A DIVISION (#24) After Muhammad’s death, the community was divided over the question of leadership. This turned out to be the key issue of division for the Muslim world. Though Abu Bakr was initially chosen, many thought leadership should remain in the family of the prophet and go to his cousin Ali. Even so, Abu Bakr proved to be very capable and helped heal some of the rifts in the community. However, within the next several years, infighting and assassinations of certain caliphs divided the community for good. We will look at a handout in class that further explains this division. SUNNI SHI’A DIFFERENCES UMAYYAD CALIPHATE (#25) By the early 700’s, Umayyad armies had taken control of the entire Middle East, pushed into central Asia and India, across north Africa, and even into Europe by claiming Spain for their empire. No empire had spread so rapidly. All of this territory was taken in less than 100 years. Though Mecca remained the holy city of Islam, the political capital of the Umayyad rulers was set at Damascus. MUSLIM ARABS DOMINATE THE EMPIRE (#26) As the empire grew, it obviously brought in a number of diverse people groups. Many of these conquered peoples converted to the new faith. The Umayyad leaders, who were themselves Arab in ethnicity, set up a social and political system that would ensure Arab superiority by: 1) Only extending “first-class” citizenship rights to Arab Muslims. 2) Keeping high ranking political and military posts for Arabs. 3) Granting the spoils of war to only Arab warriors. 4) Providing tax restrictions for Arab Muslims (only the zakat) *Additionally, the Umayyad leaders tried to keep Arab warriors stationed together in the towns and removed from the local population for fear that they would assimilate into foreign cultures. “PEOPLE OF THE BOOK” (#27) Under Umayyad rule, a large portion of the population were still Jewish and Christian inhabitants. Umayyad rulers understood that they needed their support, so they allowed them to keep their legal systems in place and worship freely. Umayyad rule was accepted because many times it was much more lenient than previous regimes. TREATMENT OF WOMEN ACCORDING TO MUHAMMAD (#28) Women in the earliest years of Islam continued to exercise considerable influence. For example: 1) Muhammad denounced adultery for both husbands and wives. 2) He forbade female infanticide, which was widely practiced in pre-Islamic Arabia. 3) He allowed his daughters a voice in who they would marry and strengthened the rights of women in inheritance and divorce. 4) Taught equality of men and women in the eyes of God. 5) Women could accompany men in battle and receive an education, since knowing how to read was imperative for understanding the Quran. 6) Women could hold a number of occupations, including scholarship, law, and commerce. UMAYYAD DECLINE AND FALL (#29) Read on p. 141-143 ABBASID RULE (#30) After defeating their Umayyad enemies, the Abbasid’s moved the capital of the empire to Baghdad. It was not long before they too surrounded themselves with luxurious palaces and increasing numbers of harems. They also emphasized the massive bureaucratization of the empire by creating thousands of government jobs for legal counselors, to tax collectors, to soldiers, to engineers, and wazirs. A wazir (pronounced va-zeer) was the chief administrator for the caliph. He oversaw the imperial administration for the caliphs so that they could focus on producing heirs and luxurious living. Wazirs had tremendous power in this new form of bureaucracy. MASS CONVERSIONS UNDER ABBASIDS (#31) Once the Abbasid regime took over, the emphasis on Arab superiority was discarded since the Abbasids were not Arabs. All converts, regardless of their ethnicity were now welcomed as equals in the faith. Most conversions were peaceful because of the great advantages that conversion brought, like tax-emptions and greater opportunities for advanced schooling and occupations. Persian scholars and administrators rose quickly in the imperial government as a result of the bureaucratic skills and their ethnic similarities to the Abbasids. MUSLIM CULTURE AND TRADE FLOURISH (#32) Abbasid power brought enormous urban growth throughout their lands and a revival of AfroEurasian trade that had declined with the fall of the classical empires. Arab dhows, sailing vessels equipped with lateen (triangular) sails helped facilitate more trade in the Indian ocean. Muslim, Christian, and Jewish merchants formed joint trading companies to conduct business each day of the week since they had different holy days. *The huge profits of trade were funneled into urban centers which flourished during the Abbasid era. * Cities were beautified with the construction of mansions for the elite, exquisite mosques, schools, libraries, bath and rest houses for travelers, and hospitals. MUSLIM CULTURE AND TRADE FLOURISH (#32) House of Wisdom, Baghdad *Craftsmanship and artisan production soared throughout the empire. * Craftsmen throughout the realms produced high-quality carpets, glassware, and jewelry. * Traders brought exotic goods from all over the Afro-Eurasian world. MUSLIM CULTURE AND TRADE FLOURISH (#32) Persian rug MUSLIM PRESERVATION OF ANCIENT KNOWLEDGE (#33) As the Islamic world spread culturally and politically, one of their points of emphasis was the preservation and creation of scientific and mathematical discovery. The took enormous pride in translating the works of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern world to Arabic. In this way knowledge was not only preserved, but built upon. Greek writings on medicine, algebra, geometry, astronomy, anatomy, and ethics were saved form the fall of the Mediterranean culture. They also borrowed from the Indians their numerical system which was spread throughout the Middle East and Europe.