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Geography is the study of the distribution and interaction of: ◦ physical features on Earth ◦ human features on Earth Geographers use a variety of tools: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ maps photographs charts, graphs, tables scale models five themes of geography Absolute location—exact place where a geographic feature is found Relative location—location of a place compared to places around it Earth is divided into two equal halves, vertically and horizontally Each vertical and horizontal half is called a hemisphere An imaginary line, the Equator, divides north and south halves Another imaginary line, the Prime Meridian, divides east and west Geographers use latitude lines to locate places north and south Latitude—imaginary lines that run parallel to the equator Geographers use longitude lines to mark positions east and west Longitude—imaginary lines that go over the poles Where latitude and longitude lines cross is the absolute location How a place is related to its surrounding environment Place includes physical features and cultural characteristics: ◦ physical features include climate, landforms, vegetation ◦ cultural characteristic include dams, highways, houses How Are Places Similar or Different? A region is an area united by similar characteristics Unifying characteristics—physical, political, economic, cultural Three types of regions: ◦ formal ◦ functional ◦ perceptual Defined by a limited number of related characteristics Formal regions of the world: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ The United States and Canada Latin America Europe Russia and the Republics Africa Southwest Asia South Asia East Asia Southeast Asia, Oceania, and Antarctica Organized around interactions and connections between places Example: a city and its suburbs are connected through human movement Region with characteristics people perceive in much the same way Example: the American Midwest Sometimes perceptions differ: Does Midwest begin in Ohio or Illinois? How Do People Relate to the Physical World? A relationship exists between people and their environment People use and change the environment to meet their needs People adapt to environmental conditions they cannot change Often, people in similar environments adapt in different ways How Do People, Goods, and Ideas Get from One Place to Another? Geographers use three types of distance to analyze movement: ◦ linear distance ◦ time distance ◦ psychological distance Linear distance—how far a person, product, or idea travels Time distance—how long it takes for person, product, idea to travel Psychological Distance- Refers to the way people perceive distance ◦ Example: unfamiliar places may seem farther away than familiar ones Three types of maps: general reference, thematic, navigational A topographic map is one kind of general reference map Topographic map—shows natural and manmade features of earth Thematic map—shows specific data such as climate, population density A navigation map is used by sailors, pilots Continental Drift—1912 hypothesis of Alfred Wegener: ◦ Earth once one supercontinent; Wegener calls it Pangaea, “all earth” ◦ Pangaea splits into many plates that slowly drift apart Lakes, Rivers, and Streams Rivers and streams carry water to and from larger bodies of water Tributaries are smaller rivers, streams that feed into larger ones Drainage basin—area drained by river and its tributaries Ground Water Ground water—water held in the pores of rock Water table—level at which the rock is saturated Landforms Landforms are naturally formed features on Earth’s surface Oceanic Landforms Continental shelf—sea floor from continent’s edge to deep ocean Sea floor has ridges, valleys, canyons, plains, mountain ranges Islands are formed by volcanoes, sand, or coral deposits Internal forces reshape the earth’s surface. Internal forces shaping the earth often radically alter the lives of people as well. Relief—difference in landform elevation from lowest to highest point Four categories of relief—mountains, hills, plains, plateaus Topography—the configurations and distribution of landforms Topographic map shows vertical dimensions, relationship of landforms Tectonic plates are massive, moving pieces of Earth’s lithosphere Plates ride above circulating, heated rock Geographers study plate movements to understand: ◦ how the earth is reshaped ◦ how earthquakes and volcanoes are formed Plates move in one of four ways: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ by spreading, or moving apart subduction, or diving under another plate collision, or crashing together sliding past each other in a shearing motion Movement of plates effects surface of the earth Saudi Arabia–Egypt’s plates are spreading apart, widening Red Sea India’s plate is crashing into Asian continent, building up Himalayas Three types of boundaries mark plate movement: ◦ divergent boundary ◦ convergent boundary ◦ transform boundary Two plates meeting can cause folding, cracking of rock Fault occurs when pressure causes rock to fracture, or crack Fault line is place where plates move past each other An earthquake occurs when plates grind or slip at a fault line A seismograph detects earthquakes and measures the waves they create Location in the earth where an earthquake begins is called the focus Epicenter—the point directly above focus on the earth’s surface Nearly 95% of earthquakes occur at tectonic plate boundaries Earthquakes release energy in the form of motion, causing: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ landslides land displacement fires (broken gas lines) collapsed buildings Richter Scale—numeric scale showing relative strength of earthquake Tsunami, a giant ocean wave, begins at epicenter of an earthquake: ◦ travels at up to 450 mph ◦ waves of 50–100 ft. or higher The Explosive Earth Volcano—underground materials pour from crack in the earth’s surface Most volcanoes occur at tectonic plate boundaries Volcanic Action Eruption—lava, gases, ash, dust, explode from vent in Earth’s crust Lava—magma that has reached the earth’s surface; may create landform Ring of Fire—zone around rim of Pacific Ocean: ◦ meeting point of eight tectonic plates ◦ vast majority of the earth’s active volcanoes located here “Hot spots” are where magma rises to surface from mantle Hot springs, geysers indicate high temperatures in earth’s crust Some volcanic action is useful: ◦ volcanic ash produces fertile soil ◦ hot springs are tapped for heat, energy Wind, heat, cold, glaciers, rivers, and floods alter the surface of the earth. The results of weathering and erosion change the way humans interact with the environment. Weathering—processes that alter rock on or near the earth’s surface Can change landscapes over time and create soil for plant life Sediment—mud, sand, silt created by weathering processes Mechnical Weathering Mechanical weathering—processes that break rock into smaller pieces Does not change rock’s composition, only size Examples: frost, plant roots, road construction, mining Chemical weathering—interaction of elements creates new substance Example: when iron rusts it reacts to oxygen in air and crumbles Warm, moist climates produce more chemical weathering than cool, dry Erosion—when weathered material moves by winds, water, ice, gravity ◦ movement grinds rock into smaller pieces, carries to new location Example: water carries topsoil from hill to river, river narrows Water Erosion Most streams erode vertically and horizontally ◦ a valley cut by a stream gets deeper, wider; forms v-shaped valley ◦ a river deposits sediment at ocean, creates delta— fan-like landform Wind Erosion Wind transports sediment from one place to another Loess—wind-blown silt and clay sediment; produces fertile soil Glacial Erosion Glacier—large, long-lasting mass of ice; forms in mountainous areas Glaciation—changing of landforms by slowly moving glaciers Example: cutting u-shaped valleys in land Moraine—hill or ridge formed by rocks deposited by glacier Soil—loose mix of weathered rock, organic matter, air, water Soil supports plant growth; fertility is dependent on three factors: ◦ texture ◦ amount of humus, which is organic material in soil ◦ amount of air and water When geographers study soil, they look at five factors: ◦ parent material—the chemical composition of the original rock ◦ relief—the steeper the slope, the greater erosion; less soil made ◦ organisms—plants, worms, ants, bacteria loosen soil; supply nutrients ◦ climate—hot, cold, wet, dry climates produce different soils ◦ time—about 2.5 cubic cm. of soil produced each century Climate is created by the sun’s solar energy interacting with the earth’s land, water, and air. In turn, climate and soil shape the earth’s vegetation. Seasons and weather occur because of the changing position of the earth in relation to the sun. Weather extremes are related to location on earth. Earth’s Tilt Earth is tilted at a 23.5˚ angle relative to the sun Areas of Earth get more, less direct sun at different times of year The seasons are related to the earth’s tilt and revolution The solstice marks beginning of summer, winter ◦ sun’s rays directly overhead at noon at furthest points north and south The equinox marks the beginning of spring and autumn ◦ day and night are equal in length Weather—atmospheric conditions at a particular location and time Climate—weather conditions at one location over long a period Example: Northern Russia has a cold climate What Causes the Weather? Sun: amount of solar energy received Water vapor: determines whether there will be precipitation Precipitation—water droplets falling as rain, snow, sleet, hail Cloud cover: clouds may hold water vapor Landforms and bodies of water ◦ water heats slowly, loses heat slowly ◦ land heats rapidly, loses heat rapidly Elevation: as elevation increases, air becomes thinner ◦ thin air cannot hold moisture Air movement: distributes moisture and solar energy Precipitation comes about when: ◦ warm air rises, cools, loses ability to hold water vapor ◦ water vapor condenses into droplets ◦ water droplets form clouds ◦ heavy clouds release droplets as rain, snow Three types of precipitation ◦ convectional ◦ orthographic ◦ frontal Rain shadow—land on leeward side of hills, mountains ◦ little precipitation in rain shadow Hurricanes Huge storms called hurricanes, or typhoons in Asia: ◦ form over warm, tropical ocean waters ◦ hit land with heavy rain, high winds, storm surge Tornadoes Tornado—a powerful, funnel-shaped column of spiraling air: ◦ born from strong thunderstorms ◦ capable of immense damage Blizzards Blizzard—heavy snowstorm with strong winds, reduced visibility Droughts Drought: long period of time with either no or minimal rainfall Floods Water spreads out over normally dry land Climate reflects the seasonal patterns of weather for a location over a long period of time. Global climatic changes may be natural or human-made. Wind Currents Wind, ocean currents help distribute sun’s heat worldwide Convection—upward motion of air that transfers heat in atmosphere Coriolis effect is the bending of winds due to Earth’s rotation Ocean Currents Resemble rivers flowing in the ocean Warm water flows away from equator toward poles Cold, polar water flows back toward equator Zones of Latitude Low, or tropical latitude ◦ hot all year round Middle, or temperate latitude ◦ warm summers and cold winters High, or polar latitude ◦ cold all year round Elevation Elevation is the distance above sea level As elevation increases, climate gets colder Topography Topography: landforms and their distribution in an area Landforms, especially mountains, affect climate El Niño El Niño—winds push warm Pacific Ocean waters toward the Americas La Niña—winds push warm waters toward Australia and Asia Both cause natural, worldwide changes in climate Global Warming Gradual warming of the earth’s atmosphere Greenhouse effect—the earth warms due to trapped solar energy Temperature and precipitation define climate regions. Broad climate definitions help to identify variations in weather at a location over the course of a year. Temperature and precipitation define climate Location, topography, elevation may impact climate Five general climate regions: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ tropical (low-latitude) dry mid-latitude high latitude highland Tropical Wet- Always hot; daily rainfall adds up to more than 80” annually Tropical Wet and Dry- Warm, wet summer season; cooler, dry winter season Semiarid- Hot summers; mild to cold winters; little precipitation Desert- Two kinds of desert—hot, cool/cold; less than 10” rain per year Mediterranean- Summers dry and hot; winters cool and rainy Marine West Coast- Moderate temperatures; frequently cloudy, foggy, damp Humid Subtropical- Long periods of summer heat and humidity; winters mild to cool Humid Continental- Great variety of temperature, precipitation; four distinct seasons • Tundra—flat, treeless ring of lands around the Arctic Ocean, very little precipitation; summer temperatures around 40˚ F. Permafrost is the constantly frozen subsoil found in this region Ice Cap Snow, ice, permanently freezing temperatures Highlands • Climate varies with latitude, elevation, topography, location Soil is a thin layer of weathered rock, humus, air, water Topsoil refers to the top 6” of soil Soil characteristics vary with climate Type of soil determines type of vegetation that can be supported Type of vegetation determines type of possible human activity Ecosystem—interdependent community of plants and animals Biome—the ecosystem of a region Biomes are further divided into: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ forest grassland desert tundra Forest regions categorized by trees they support—broadleaf or needle Deciduous—broadleaf trees: maple, oak, birch, cottonwood ◦ mostly in Northern Hemisphere Rain forest—tropical forest covered with broadleaf trees Coniferous—needle leaf trees; cone bearing: pine, fir, cedar ◦ mostly in Northern Hemisphere Deciduous and coniferous trees together form mixed forest Flat regions with few trees A savanna is a tropical grassland Steppe, or prairie, are temperate grasslands of Northern Hemisphere Plants in these regions have adapted to climate extremes: ◦ tundra plants (mosses, lichen) hug the ground ◦ desert plants (cacti, sagebrush) conserve water, withstand heat Humans either adapt to land, or alter it to meet their needs Some human activities that affect the environment: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ building dams installing irrigation systems planting crops slashing and burning vegetation Human Geography Human beings are members of social groups with shared and unique sets of behaviors and attitudes. Language and religion are two very important aspects of culture. Knowledge, attitudes, behaviors shared over generations is culture Society is a group that shares geographic region, identity, culture An ethnic group shares language, customs, common heritage Innovation Innovation is creating something new with existing resources ◦ Example: weaving baskets from reeds to solve storage problem Diffusion Spread of ideas, inventions, patterns of behavior called diffusion Cultural hearth—site of innovation; origin of cultural diffusion ◦ Example: Nile River civilizations in Africa Acculturation Acculturation—society changes because it accepts innovation Importance of Language Enables people within a culture to communicate Reflects all aspects of culture Language and Identity Language helps establish cultural identity, unity Language can also divide people, cause conflict Language Families Between 3,000 and 6,500 languages spoken worldwide Similar languages belong to same language family Dialect—a version of a language, like Southern drawl Language Diffusion Language can spread via trade routes, migration Belief Systems Religion—belief in supernatural power that made, maintains universe Monotheistic faiths believe in one god Belief in many gods called polytheistic Animistic, or traditional, faiths believe in divine forces of nature Spread of Religion Religion spreads through diffusion and conversion Conversion—some religions try to recruit others to their faith Judaism Monotheistic; evolved 3,200 years ago; holy book called the Torah Christianity Evolved from Judaism; based on teachings of Jesus Christ Largest religion—2 billion followers worldwide Islam Monotheistic; based on teachings of Prophet Muhammad Followers, called Muslims, worship God, called Allah Holy book called the Qur’an Hinduism Polytheistic; evolved in India around 5,000 years ago Hindu caste system has fixed social classes, specific rites/duties Buddhism Offshoot of Hinduism; evolved around 563 B.C. in India Founder Siddhartha Gautama, called the Buddha, or Enlightened One Rejects Hindu castes; seeks enlightened spiritual state, or nirvana Other Asian Practices Include Confucianism, Taoism, Shinto All cultures express themselves creatively Performing arts include music, dance, theater, film Architecture, painting, sculpture, textiles are forms of visual arts Oral and written literature include poems, folk tales, stories People are not distributed equally on the earth’s surface. The world’s population continues to grow, but at different rates in different regions. Number of live births per thousand population is the birthrate Fertility rate—average, lifetime number of children born to a woman Number of deaths per thousand people is the mortality rate Infant mortality rate—deaths under age 1 per 1,000 live births Population growth rate, or rate of natural increase, figured by: ◦ subtracting the mortality rate from the birthrate A population pyramid shows a population’s sex, age distribution Enables the study of how events (wars, famines) affect population Habitable Lands 2/3 of world’s population lives between 20˚N and 60˚N latitude Human habitation in this zone: ◦ dense where temperature and precipitation allow agriculture ◦ also dense along coastal areas and in river valleys ◦ more sparse in polar, mountain, desert regions Urban–Rural Mix More than half of world’s population rural; rapidly becoming urban Reasons for migrating sometimes called push-pull factors Push factors (drought, war) cause migration from an area Pull factors (favorable economy, climate) spur migration to an area Estimating Population Population density is the average number of people living in an area Carrying Capacity Carrying capacity is the number of organisms an area can support ◦ affected by fertile land, level of technology, economic prosperity The world is divided into many political regions. Local, national, and regional governments control aspects of life within the boundaries of the unit. An independent political unit, a state, or country: ◦ occupies specific territory ◦ controls its internal, external affairs Nation—unified group with common culture living in a territory A nation and state occupying same territory is a nation-state In a democracy, citizens hold political power Political power held by a king or queen is a monarchy In a dictatorship, a group or individual holds all political power Communism is a governmental and economic system ◦ political, economic power held by government in people’s name Size Physical size does not accurately reflect political, economic power Shape Shape affects governance, transportation, relations with neighbors Location A landlocked country has no direct outlet to the sea ◦ may limit prosperity, as shipping and trade bring wealth Hostile neighbors necessitate increased security Natural Boundaries Formed by rivers, lakes, mountain chains Artificial Boundaries Fixed line, generally following latitude, longitude: ◦ Example: 49 degrees N latitude separates U.S. from Canada ◦ often formally defined in treaties Countries divide into smaller political units like cities, towns Smaller units combine regionally into counties, states, etc. Countries may join together to form international units: ◦ examples: United Nations, European Union Nearly half the world’s population lives in urban areas. Cities fulfill economic, residential, and cultural functions in different ways. Cities Urban geography is the study of how people use space in cities Cities are populous centers of business, culture, innovation, change Urban Areas Urban area develops around a central city; may be surrounded by: ◦ suburbs—border central city, other suburbs ◦ exurbs—have open land between them and central city Central city plus its suburbs and exurbs called a metropolitan area Urbanization Urbanization—rise in number of cities, resulting lifestyle changes Location and Function Cities are often located near: ◦ good transportation—lakes, rivers, coastline ◦ plentiful natural resources As a result, cities tend to: ◦ become transportation hubs ◦ specialize in certain economic activities Basic land use patterns found in all cities: ◦ residential (housing) ◦ industrial (manufacturing) ◦ commercial (retail) Central business district (CBD)—core area of commercial activity Shopping, entertainment, government services Educational, recreational, and cultural activities Transportation is essential to accomplish functions Economic activities depend on the resources of the land and how people use them. The level of economic development can be measured in different ways. Economy—the production and exchange of goods and services Economies are local, regional, national, international Geographers study economic geography by looking at: ◦ how people in a region support themselves ◦ how economic activity is linked regionally Economic system: way people produce and exchange goods, services Four types of economic systems: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ traditional, or barter, economy command, or planned, economy market economy, also called capitalism mixed economy, a combination of command and market In subsistence agriculture, food is raised for personal consumption Raising food to sell to others is called market-oriented agriculture Cottage industries involve small, home-based industrial production Large industrial production comes from commercial industries Four levels of economic activities: ◦ primary involves gathering raw materials for immediate use ◦ secondary adds value to material by changing its form ◦ tertiary involves business or professional services ◦ quaternary provides information, management, research services Natural Resources—Earth’s materials that have economic value Materials become resources when they can be turned into goods Geographers divide natural resources into three types: ◦ renewable resources (trees, seafood) can be replaced naturally ◦ nonrenewable resources (metals, oil, coal) cannot be replaced ◦ inexhaustible resources (sun, wind) are unlimited resources Natural resources are a major part of world trade Infrastructure—basic support systems to sustain economic growth ◦ power, communications, transportation systems ◦ water, sanitation, and education systems Communications systems and technology both critical to development Comparing Economies Per capita income: average earnings per person in a political unit GNP and GDP Gross national product (GNP)—statistic to measure: ◦ total value of goods, services produced by a country, globally Gross domestic product (GDP)—statistic to measure: ◦ total value of goods and services produced within a country Developing nations have low GDP, per capita income Developed nations have high GDP, per capita income