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Welcome to E L 120 English Phonetics and Linguistics Lecture 5 Unit 8:Word Classes Unit 9:Syntax 1-What is Syntax? Unit 10: Syntax 2-Sentence Types and Classes Word Classes • Word class refer to words that are grouped into categories of nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, articles, demonstratives, conjunctions, etc. • Words that have same function or same meaning or same form are grouped together as belonging to same word class. • Word classes are also called parts of speech. Main word class categories: • Nouns: refer to words that identify people, things, places, animals or abstractions. Nouns are grouped into 2 major categories: Common nouns (eg: coffee, table, rabbit etc) and Proper nouns (eg: Lebanon, The Red Sea, Sara etc). Proper nouns start with capital letter. • Verbs: refer to actions or events (eg: drive, play) or state of affairs (eg: like, hate). • • • Pronouns: refer to words that replace a noun. (eg: he, she, it, them, I etc) Adjectives: refer to words used to describe something or someone. (eg: The heavy bag, the bag is heavy). Adverbs: refer to words that describe a verb or add information to other categories. The form of adverb is distinguished by –ly ending (eg: hourly, slowly, basically). Some adverbs of place adverbs of time do not end with –ly (eg: now, often, here, there). Adverbs of manner add information on manner or how things are done. (eg: carefully, slowly). Adverbs of place add in formation on place or where things are. (eg: here, there, near) Adverbs of time add information on time or when things are done. (eg: now, then, before). • Prepositions: refer to words that function to link lexical words in the sentence. (eg: in, on, up, down, under etc). • Articles: refer to words used with nouns to show if they are definite or indefinite. (eg: the, a, an) • Demonstratives: refer to words which indicate the distance of something or someone, from the speaker. (eg: this, these, (near) that, those (far) etc). • Conjunctions: also called connectives, refer to words which connect words, phrases or sentences together. (eg: and, but, because, however, as, or etc). Criteria for classification • Grammarians usually depend on 3 types of criteria in grouping a word or a group of words to form a certain class. These are: (1) Semantic Criteria: means depending on meaning , classifying word classes or parts of speech. For eg: the definitions of noun, verb etc. As these definitions are criticized as inaccurate, semantic criteria are not reliable. (2) Morphological criteria: Morphology, the study of internal structure of words, deals with ‘derivational’ and ‘inflectional’ affixes ( prefixes or suffixes). Words that belong to a certain class have some morphological properties in common. (a) Most nouns in Eng take an inflectional suffix to mark Number: most Eng nouns have 2 forms- singular and plural. Plural form is derived from singular form by adding the suffix “s” or “es” (eg: cats, boys, matches). (b) Eng nouns take some derivational affixes, which are typical of nouns. (Eg: postage, information, teacher, arrival, goodness, friendship). Nouns have some morphological properties which distinguish them from other word classes. Although morphological criteria are revealing, they are not wholly reliable. (3) Syntactic criteria: Syntax refer to study of sentence construction: the arrangement of words and phrases in sentences or syntactic rules and relations. Nouns possess certain syntactic properties. They generally function in the same way in sentences and phrases. (refer page: 85). Lexical and Grammatical word classes Word classes can be grouped into 2 main categories: (a) Lexical words: are both meaningful and can be used on their own. These are also called content words. 4 main lexical word classes are: nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. (b) Grammatical words: have little or no lexical meaning on their own. Word classes in this category are also called function words. Words belonging to this category are: pronouns, prepositions, articles, demonstratives and conjunctions, interjections. • Words are also classified as : (1) Open word classes: word classes that are open to the addition/ creation of new items, through suffixing or prefixing. Eg: friend- friendship. (2) Closed word classes: word classes that are closed to addition of new items. P. 86 What is Syntax? • Syntax- study of the ways in which sentences are constructed from smaller units called constituents and how they are related to each other. • Sentence constituents: sentences are made up of smaller units, which combine in some specific ways to convey meaning. The constituents are: subject, predicate, clause, phrase and word. • Communicative function: we communicate with each other by means of utterances. Such utterances may be short or long, phrases or sentences, statements or questions etc. Orthographic criteria: when we speak our utterances may be short and we may use incomplete sentences. We convey meaning through intonation, pauses, stress, facial expression and gestures. In writing, these devices are not available and so our sentences must be structured and punctuated properly. Word order: In English, the order of words is essential to the meaning of the sentence. A change in word order in English sentences brings with it a change in meaning. Subject and predicate: A sentence normally has a subject and a predicate. The subject of a sentence represents either what the sentence is about (theme/topic) or the doer of the action (agent). The predicate is the part of the sentence that tells something about the subject. • The subject-verb agreement is called concord • Transitive verbs require one or more objects where as an intransitive verb does not require an object.(98) • Monotransitive verb requires a direct object(Od). • Ditransitive verb takes 2 objects, a direct object (Od) and an indirect object(Oi). • Complex transitive: It requires both a direct object(Od) and an object complement(Co). • Object complement may be defined as a word/words that follows a direct object and describes it. Eg, They appointed Bill Chairman • A linking verb is followed by a word or a phrase that describes the subject. This word/phrase is called a subject complement(Cs) Eg, Some snakes are poisonous Sometimes a linking verb is followed by an obligatory adverbial(ADV). Eg, Bill is in London. • Noun Phrase is a word/ group of words whose HEAD is commonly a NOUN. The head noun may be preceded by other elements, called pre-modifiers. Eg, The tall boy is my nephew. • The head noun (HN) may be followed by diff types of elements called post modifiers. Eg. The tall man in the corner speaks five languages (prd) Sub verb premod HN post modifier We regret the fact that Bill has lost the position Verb phrase • Most regular English verbs have 5 distinct forms, each having its function. Form Function Examples 1. Base a. b. I speak English He wants to speak English 2.s-form Simple present He/She speaks English 3. Past -ed Simple past Bill painted the house 4.-ingform: In Progressive tenses Bill is speaking English We are watching TV Pr. participle 5.-en form: Past participle a. b. Simple present Infinitive form In perfect tenses Bill has done his homework In passive verb I have finished my task. phrases The car has been repaired Ali was given a present. Lexical (full/main) verbs: Eg, base: eat, listen, walk etc, -s form: eats, listens, walks etc. past: ate, listened, walked present participle: eating, listening, walking past participle: eaten, listened, walked • Auxiliaries are words that precede lexical verbs. They are divided into 2 classes: 1. 2. Basic (primary) auxiliaries: be, have and do Secondary (modal) auxiliaries: can, could, will, would, may , might, shall, should, must , ought to etc Tense Present Past Future Simple I write letters He writes letters I wrote letters I will write letters Perfect have written has written had written will have written was writing were writing will be writing Progressive am writing is writing are writing Perfect and have been writing had been progressive has been writing writing will have been writing • Transitive verbs with 2 objects Bill gave Mary (Oi) an apple (Od) Tense Active Passive Present 1. Simple 2. Perfect 3. Progressive write/writes is/are written has/have written has/have written is/are/am writing is/are being written Past was/were wrote written had written had been written was/were writing was/were being written 1. Simple 2. Perfect 3. Progressive • Sentences are divided acc to 3 parameters: # complexity #grammatical form #communicative function • Acc to complexity, sentences are divided into 4 classes 1. Simple sentences- one and only independent clause, one finite verb Mary lives in London Verb forms are customarily divided into 2 classes: finite(F) and nonfinite(NF). It must show tense, has person and number concord with the Subject and can occur alone as the verb element in a simple sentence. Clause: a group of words that can be analyzed into S, V, O, C, ADV 2. Complex sentences: more than one clause, an independent and a dependent clause I know [that Bill likes Mary] He will give her the money (Independent Cl S+V+Od+Oi) when she signs the contract (Dependent Cl S+V+ Od) Adverbial indicates the time of the action expressed by the verb in the main clause. 3. Compound sentences: two independent clauses coordinated by means of the coordinator ‘and’. You can wait here and [I will get the key] 4. Compound-complex sentences: at least two independent clauses and one subordinate clause He gave her everything and [she left him [as soon as she found a new job]] • Acc. to grammatical form, four sentence classes: declarative (the lion is a strong animal), interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. • Four classes of sentence with four functions: declarativestatement, interrogative-question, imperative-command or order, exclamatory-surprise, anger etc. THANK YOU [email protected] Dr. Veena Vijaya