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The Renaissance and Humanism How to Sniggle, 1653 "And because you that are but a young angler, know not what snigling is, I will now teach it to you: ... you observing your time in a warm day, when the water is lowest, may take a hook tied to a strong line, or to a string about a yard long, and then into... any place where you think an Eele may hide or shelter her selfe, there with the help of a short stick put in your bait, but leisurely, and as far as you may conveniently; and it is scarce to be doubted, but that if there be an Eel within the sight of it, the Eele will bite instantly, and as certainly gorge it... but pull him out by degrees, for he lying folded double in his hole, will, with the help of his taile, break all, unless you give him time to be wearied with pulling." Izaak Walton, The Compleat Angler (1653) What is the ‘Renaissance’? It’s pretty messy!!.... An historical ‘period’? An event? A cultural movement? Where does it take place? Who does it involve? What shapes and defines it? Depends on who you ask….. Renaissance Thoughts Una rinascita – a ‘rebirth’ of classical values that re-energized Europe Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574) a new epoch of civilized life following a millennium of brutality and barbarism Pier Paolo Vergerio (1370-1444) “Only those liberal arts are worthy of free men; they alone can help us to attain virtue and wisdom” Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) The people who invented the term "Renaissance" for distinguishing their period from the barbaric Middle Ages - were the Italian humanists. Marsilio Ficino ...in a letter to a friend If we are to call any age golden, it is beyond doubt that age which brings forth golden talents in different places. That such is true of this our age [no one] will hardly doubt. For this century, like a golden age, has restored to light the liberal arts, which were almost extinct: grammar, poetry, rhetoric, painting, sculpture, architecture, music . . . and all this in Florence. Achieving what had been honored among the ancients, but almost forgotten since, the age has joined wisdom with eloquence, and prudence with the military art. . . . This century appears to have perfected astronomy, in Florence it has recalled the Platonic teaching from darkness into light . . . and in Germany . . . [there] have been invented the instruments for printing books. Historians’ Thoughts Jakob Burkhardt (1818-1897); Swiss art historian Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860s) – profoundly influential "the discovery of the world and of man” – newness & novelty Renaissance as secularizing urban movement which breaks with the past The real development of the individual – a watershed moment for modernity Italy the ‘firstborn among the sons of Modern Europe’ Burkhardt In the Middle Ages both sides of human consciousness – that which was turned within as that which was turned without -- lay dreaming or held awake beneath a common veil. The veil was woven of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession, through which the world and history were seen clad in strange hues. Man was conscious of himself as a member of a race, people, party, family, or corporation -- only through some general category. In Italy this veil first melted into air; an objective treatment and consideration of the state and of all the things of this world became possible. The subjective side at the same time asserted itself with corresponding emphasis; man became a spiritual individual, and recognized himself as such. In the same way, the Greek distinguished himself from the barbarian. Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy The Renaissance? As a cultural movement? An historical ‘period’? An event? If and Intellectual and Cultural movement – When does it start, and where? How? Who is involved? Break with the medieval past? NO Downgraded past 1000 years as “Middle” Ages Culmination of medieval aspirations in many ways – education, art, civil life, trade, intellectual life “not so much period as program” – Barbara Rosenwein co-exists and overlaps with ‘late medieval’ AND ‘early modern’ When depends on where Renaissance Italy – 14th-16th centuries Renaissance Scotland – late 16th & early 17th centuries The Renaissance – The Human Experience The Renaissance – validates the human experience in a profound way Takes up the medieval ideas about moral discretion – and the trustworthiness of the senses, optics, investigation (inquisition!) and turns them all into something which is creative and productive The individual lies at the centre of this experience What does it mean to live in a human society? What does it mean to create? How should human beings treat one another? What is the best condition of life? What kinds of practical considerations do human beings need to think of? How can human excellence be achieved through human abilities? Artistic Textual / Literary Conduct & Civility The Renaissance Ideal? Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) Oration on the Dignity of Man Never actually given! Captures the ‘essence’ of the Renaissance Human beings can move up and down the ‘ladder’ of the created, ordered, cosmos. As spiritual beings, excelling in intellect, they can be higher than the angels; as vegetative or staid brutish lustful animals, they can be like beasts or a stone: they have the choice. Humanity as chameleon like can transform using its god-given gifts, and thus better itself through imagination, creation, intellectual activity, rational knowledge… The Renaissance – Definitions & Myths Some Myths That the Renaissance is a secular movement, representing a decline in the significance of Christianity (or Catholicism) That the art, philosophy, politics (etc.) of 1400-1600 necessarily cohere as one unified culture That the Renaissance is a pure revival of the Ancients (rather than a re-invention) That Renaissance Humanism replaces Medieval Scholasticism (or Renaissance art replaces Gothic architecture), etc. (They co-exist for a while) View its emergence as transition, spread of interests, of cultural expressions, practices of interaction and thought in Art - Conduct Literature - Interest in Classical Authors - Textual Practices – Invention - Interrogation of Authority Inspirations and Context Why did the Renaissance occur? This is a difficult question at best -- there are no easy answers Commercial changes & Affluence Nominalism the stagnation of late medieval thought Reaction against the synthesis or the idea of overly formal and systematic ideas The Black Death Inspirations and Context Northern Italian cities: self-governing states, ongoing wars Defending their “liberty”, firstly from outside (Pope, Emperor [Guelphs v Ghibellines], France); then from within: rise of signori (dynastic lords), e.g. Ferrara, Verona, late 13th: republic vs princely rule the “Mirror for Rulers” genre (rhetoric) Key theme: Virtue (as the “true nobility”) and Fortune interest in Roman history (republic vs empire) Sight of the world of Man (humanity) and the world of Nature Inspirations and Context Ad Fontes “to the source” reading classical literature and appreciating classical art anew. Return to Graeco-Roman authors, interests, and styles as source for inspiration – ‘light’ after the darkness of a millennium Retrieving classical sources involved an effort of critical historical scholarship: philology and history were important Renaissance disciplines. Resources for ‘true’ human living and learning Plato (c.427-c.347) and Cicero (106-43) - the ‘conscience’ of the Renaissance Learned from the past and borrow what is deemed most useful Authors - Petrarch Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) Born in Avignon; in orders Humanist, poet (Tuscany, S. France, Milan, Padua) Pursues the revival of Latin literature, especially Cicero Invents the idea of the ‘Middle Ages’ Christian ethics Letter to Posterity: "Among the many subjects which interested me, I dwelt especially upon antiquity, for our own age has always repelled me…. In order to forget my own time I have constantly striven to place myself in a spirit of other ages, and consequently, I delight in history." Turned from Aristotle to Plato: the lyrical, poetic, soulful Plato was the antithesis of and antidote for the logical, scientific, unemotional Aristotle. Authors – Dante, Boccacio & Ficino Dante Alighieri (c. 1265-1321) Divina Commedia (written c. 1308-1321) Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) Decameron (c. 1349-) Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499) Theologia Platonica Humanism Is not secularism; Humanists are teachers of litterae humaniores (or studia humanitatis) = Classics (grammar; rhetoric; poetry; history; moral philosophy) Revival of classical genres: History as focused on actions of man, not God Philosophical dialogues like Plato’s which question long-standing assumptions Lyric poetry which talk about writer's private emotions Series of interests which view scholasticism as impractical Who cares how many angels can dance on the head of a pin? Rhetoric (eloquence): persuasion rather than proof Imitation of Ancients: return to classical Latin literary forms of Ancients (Cicero’s letters & speeches, e.g.) Philology: New texts available (direct access to Greek texts), new editions and translations Humanism – as an intellectual ‘toolbox’ Paul Oskar Kristeller (1905-1999) Historian & Renaissance scholar Humanism is a set of rhetorical and philological techniques, without any pregiven ends in view: “Characteristic phase in what may be called the rhetorical tradition in Western culture” A shift in practice – not just content of intellectual and cultural inquiry Move away from the scholastic notion of disputation, as well as its interests in systematic explanations of everything Humanism - Italy Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374) Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375) Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406) Leonardo Bruni (1369-1444) Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457) Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499) G. Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) N. Italian cities: between Emperors and Popes (c.11001400): liberty Florence in 15th century from republic to the Medici Grand Dukes Humanism – Northern Europe Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464) Rudolf Agricola (1443-1485) Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam (c. 14661536) Translation of New Testament (c. 1514) Praise of Folly (1509) Education of the Christian Prince (1516) John Colet (1467?-1519) Johann Reuchlin Thomas More Utopia (1516) Jacques LeFevre d’Etaples (c.1450-1536) Humanism – Textual Criticism Humanist methods can impact on other areas, e.g. Religious studies: Lorenzo Valla (14071457), On the Donation of Constantine [De falso credita et ementita Constantini Donatione declamatio] Erasmus, translation of New Testament (1516), In Praise of Folly (1515) Compultensian Polyglot Bible (1514) Artistic Life – The Artist The Artist is a God-like creator, a true philosopher Reveals more of the world by re-creating and representing it Alberti On Painting (1436) the artist is “another god” (alter deus) Ficino De furore divino (1457) an artist has divine inspiration Uses Platonic idea of the furore or frenzy and ecstasy function of the Arts and the Artist was to remind the soul of its origin in the divine world “those whose spirit is drawn away and freed from the clay of the body first see form and grace in any one, they rejoice, as at the reflection of divine beauty. But those people should at once recall to memory that divine beauty, which they should honour and desire above all; as it is by a burning desire for this beauty that they may be drawn to the heavens. This first attempt at flight Plato calls divine ecstasy and frenzy.” Artistic Life Italian painters and sculptures copied classical art and then went beyond it Revival of naturalistic representation Use of perspective to order space Artists visit Roman ruins to study the art and architecture Start of Archaeology Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture Florentines in the 1400’s emphasized naturalism, beauty of human body Italian first artistic centres – then Low Countries Giotto (1267?-1337) Fra Angelico (c. 1395 – 1455) Leone Battista Alberti (1404–1472) Donatello (1386-1466) Sandro Botticelli Filippo Lippi (1406-1469) Titian Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) Michelangelo (1475-1564) Raphael Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1450 – 1516) Jan van Eyck (1385?– 1440?) Hugo van der Goes Hans Memling (c. 1430 – 1494) Rogier van der Weyden Artistic Life Artistic Life – Art and Invention Leonardo da Vinci ( 1452 - 1519) Brings all artistic domains together: Painting, Sculpture, Invention, Learning in math and observation "knowing how to see, controls the skilled hand” Observation & Studies – whether human anatomy or fortifications Dissection Realism – Mona Lisa New technologies – human creativity and ingenuity used to solve practical problems Virtù vs Fortuna Greatness (for men!) not determined by battle, but by human capacity, virtu and civility – moral and intellectual excellence the ancients reincarnate: ancient Greek ‘Arete’ “excellence” – virtue and knowledge, the pinnacle of humanity Virtù : individual agency to shape one’s destiny and to make history (against Fortune, and providence) The point of education A great man: Seeks virtue Lives the good life Explores all potentialities Serves the civitas Not blind obedience to God’s will, but exercise of God’s gift of Free Will through rational actions and discernment Governance & Public Life Burkhardt – ‘The State as a Work of Art’ – the governor as a man of virtu Rhetoric teaching in late 1200s: turn to classical authors as examples of style; then revival of classical ideas Eloquence and good government Humanism developing alongside scholasticism Cicero, dialogues (esp. De Officiis, On Duties) Aristotle, esp. Politics and Ethics Public life is objective of man of virtu – participation and action in civic sphere Mirrors for Princes Advice for rulers genre emerges by 1300 (e.g. John of Viterbo) Rhetorical treatment of virtues of a ruler: ‘Should a ruler be loved or feared?’, etc. The Palazzo Pubblico, Siena, 1340s Ambrogio Lorenzetti fresco, The effects of Good Government on the City. The Renaissance and Patronage - Popes Rebuilding Prestige of the Papacy & Rome repairing old buildings, and constructing splendid new ones; commissioning impressive works of art; winning back the papal states, which might involve political intrigue and military force; increasing papal authority relative to the powers of European national governments, which might involve canny diplomacy; strengthening revenues and improving the papal treasury. Nicholas V (1447-1455) rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica Julius II (1503-1513) Warrior Pope Michelangelo to decorate the Sistine Chapel The Renaissance and Patronage - Medici Florence the city of the Renaissance Dominated by Medici in 15th century Cosimo & Lorenzo ‘The Magnificent’ Become powerful – four popes; eventually Dukes of Florence Plato's Academy in Florence Marcilio Ficino reconcile sPlato and Moses, Socrates and Christ Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) a universal religion combining Plato's Ideas, the Jewish Kabbala, and Christianity The Arts Sponsor rebuilding of churches and chapels As popes sponsor artists - Michelangelo Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) Serves Florentine government 1498-1512 Exiled and jailed by Medici The Prince (Il Principe), written 1513, published 1532 A new, realist ‘mirror for princes’ How can a prince maintain his status/rule? Force! A ruler not to be too good “a prince who wants to keep his post must learn how not to be good” Too much goodness can be weakness. Princes should only cultivate virtues like humanity, generosity, if they help them keep control A distinct ethics for rulers: ‘Reason of State’ (raison d’état; ragione di stato) Discorsi (on Livy), c. 1513, on republican government Machiavelli – The Prince, ch.XV “And since I am aware that many have written on this theme, I am afraid that ... I may be considered presumptuous, especially as I depart from the methods adopted by others... But since my intention is to write something useful... it seems to me more beneficial to go behind to the effectual truth of the matter rather than focusing on the imagining of it.” “... something which seems virtue can, if put into practice, cause his ruin, while another thing which seems a vice can, when put into practice, result in his security and well-being”. Rebirth or something new? The Artisan, Inventor, and the Prince as men of virtu – who excel in god-given talents Optimistic view of human potential and capacity Humanism: a coherent new philosophy? (Burckhardt) Or a set of techniques, an intellectual toolbox? (Kristeller) Merely just a rediscovery of the World and Nature? Combines humanistic values, Thomism, Augustinianism, paganism, mysticism and the new science side by side with an increasing impatience with the older medieval forms of society, cultural and intellectual life Timeline •Cosimo de'Medici returns from Exile •Thomas More's Utopia, 1516 •The Last Judgement by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel Take Away Renaissance as a turning point in European history Complex interaction of artistic, intellectual, and social changes Terms Ad Fontes Humanism Humanism as textual and intellectual practices focused on rhetoric and interest in classical past as solution for current problems and issues Machiavelli Leads to profound changes in European society and culture over the course of centuries Virtù Difficult, however, to define as a ‘period’ – more a cultural program or shift in interests Focus on human experience and lauding of human capacity Artist and Princes both examples of excellence – in creation of new works, or in governance Petrarch Perspective