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Promotion mix management: A
consumer focused Islamic perspective
a
Salman Yousaf
a
School of Business Administration, Dongbei University of Finance
and Economics, Dalian, P.R. China
Published online: 22 Apr 2014.
To cite this article: Salman Yousaf (2014): Promotion mix management: A consumer focused Islamic
perspective, Journal of Marketing Communications, DOI: 10.1080/13527266.2014.888575
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2014.888575
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Journal of Marketing Communications, 2014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2014.888575
Promotion mix management: A consumer focused Islamic perspective†
Salman Yousaf*
Downloaded by [Salman Yousaf] at 06:06 01 May 2014
School of Business Administration, Dongbei University of Finance and Economics, Dalian,
P.R. China
Religion penetrates deep into our social and cultural life but its significance in
developing marketing theories has rather been disregarded. Islam has well-established
business, economic and social systems and its influences are interwoven with the daily
life of Muslims. Therefore, it is vital for the companies to comprehend the impact that
religion makes on Muslim societies before designing their marketing strategies. Off
late, Islamic perspective has been well appreciated in the form of Islamic banking and
finance, with many western financial institutions incorporating Islamic ideologies in
their operations. This paper aims to extend the application of Islamic values in
development of Marketing theories, specifically promotion mix management. This
study argues that Islam offers a parallel paradigm of conducting business and proposes
a distinctive set of principles that can conceptualize the marketing field in its own
inherent manner.
Keywords: promotion mix; Islamic marketing; Islamic promotional ethics; integrated
marketing communication; consumer-focused
1. Introduction
There are two aspects of every religion, i.e., the spiritual aspect and the rules and
regulations. The spiritual aspect focuses on promoting love, peace, harmony, patience,
and concern for others. The rules and regulations are a moral code of conduct that
governs the social and individual behavior of people. The focal point of each religion
varies in terms of its spirituality and rules and regulations, due to the different
requirements of a particular time and the place of its origin (Bryson 2000). Because
religion permeates all facets of social and cultural life of society, its significance should
be valued by marketers. Religion brings stability to otherwise dynamic cultural
environment of a society; therefore, it is a long term phenomenon which deserves to be
thoroughly studied and deeply understood, particularly in the market where Islam is the
faith of the majority (Fam, Waller, and Erdogan 2004), because as compared to the other
religions, the influence of Islamic teachings on its followers is remarkable (Rice and AlMossawi 2002). Islam is also exceptional as it does not draw any distinction between the
spiritual and temporal dimensions since the observance of Islamic religion is not just
confined to the mosque, but its pursuance disseminates through all aspects of individual’s
daily life (Nadwi 1978). Our lives have been profoundly influenced by advertising and
promotional tools. Consumers cannot altogether escape from the various forms of
promotional messages that are transmitted through the myriad of media outlets such as
print, cable and satellite television, outdoor media and cyberspace. The primary purpose
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
†
This article is part of the larger study ‘A Study on Co-Subject Country Image Discourse and
Mechanism of Global Culture Embeddedness From Postmodern Perspective’ (Project Code:
71172121), which is supported by the National Natural Science Fund of China.
q 2014 Taylor & Francis
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2
S. Yousaf
of marketing communications is to facilitate the information provision so that consumers
can optimize their choices by making ‘informed decisions’, therefore marketing
communications cannot be dissociated from the social realities. Islam renders an
imperative outlook that embodies moral and ethical demeanor regarding all kinds of
commercial enterprises.
In this study, we quest to examine the promotion mix management from an Islamic
perspective. Promotional tools manifest the value orientation of a society, so in an Islamic
society they should be designed with the intent to project Islamic values. Since the ultimate
aim of promotional tools is to enhance commerce and trading, Islam advocates that the
promotion function of the firms should be integrated with an Islamic perspective to facilitate
the accurate information provision to the customers (Anwar and Saeed 1996). There is a
need to appreciate the Islamic perspective because it differs in its entirety as it is founded on
the divine commandments and leave no alternative for an equivocal rendition for the
marketing strategists. Islam, being a complete socioeconomic system, incorporates
guidelines for all the commercial functions, including the management of the promotional
mix and reckons them as a way to ameliorate the lives of people for the greater good of whole
society. Islam also dissuades the pursuance of ulterior motives that enables it to profoundly
touch the human conscience and bring change within (Saeed, Ahmed, and Mukhtar 2001).
Although the application of Islamic principles to the domain of marketing, banking and
finance has been drawing lots of interest from academicians and practitioners recently, very
little research work has been done to apprehend the promotion mix function of marketers
from an Islamic perspective. The current study strives to fill this gap by focusing more
specifically on the importance of Islamic values in developing the promotion mix strategies.
2.
What is Islamic marketing?
The Islamic marketing concept is different, because Islam focuses on the greater good to the
society and it prohibits the companies in pursuit of maximizing their own profits instead of
creating value for the whole society. Saeed, Ahmed, and Mukhtar (2001) termed this as a
‘principle of value maximization’, which being an inherent concept of Islamic marketing is
based upon the concept of justice that determines the whole ideology of conducting the
business. Justice demands the fulfillment of obligations that a person has toward his creator
and fellow human beings. However, the desire to amass wealth, eagerness to acquire excess
money, greed and all such activities in pursuit of profit maximization makes a person lose
his or her moral values and prevent him or her from fulfilling his or her duties (Miskawayh
1968). From an Islamic perspective, even trade and all functions related to it, e.g.,
marketing, are considered as religious service, ‘Ibadah’. The Islamic concept of Ibadah is
different. One does not necessarily engage in Ibadah when going to the Mosque, but if one is
living a life as per teachings of Holy Quran and Hadith, then it is also considered as Ibadah.
On similar lines if trade is conducted as per instructions of Islam, then it is regarded as
‘Ibadah’ itself (Yusuf 2010). So marketing which is often stereotyped as a tool to manipulate
customers and remotely associated with the religious teachings is an essential constituent of
Islamic trade and commerce. Islamic marketing encompasses all guidelines in Islam related
to conduct the marketing function for the businesses.
3. Is there a need for Islamic marketing?
The need for ‘Islamic marketing’ is discussed in perspective of three underlying
dimensions: religious reasons, economic reasons, and legal reasons.
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3
3.1 Religious reasons
Muslim population constitutes 1.65 billion people (23.9%) out of total world population of
6.93 billion people. The Muslim population ratio is expected to make up one-fourth of the
world by 2020 and one-third of the world by 2075 (Kettani 2010) and about two-thirds of
Muslim population in 20 years would be under the age of 18 years (Quelch 2001). In fact,
among the next eleven economies which have the potential to become the largest economies
in upcoming time, seven countries are Muslim dominated, i.e., Iran, Turkey, Pakistan,
Nigeria, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Egypt (O’Neill et al. 2005). Moreover, the countries with
Muslim majority are prone to a sharia compliance system (Lawrence 1998; Amin 2000);
therefore, it is very important to understand the Islamic viewpoint in business operations,
especially in the formulation of marketing communications, which is the essence of this paper.
Muslims are accountable to God for all their activities in life. Commercial transactions
are a mandatory part of human life. Therefore, Muslims are required to execute each
transaction in accordance with the Islamic law (Saeed, Ahmed, and Mukhtar 2001).
Similarly, the success at the business should be determined by the degree to which the
goals of Islam are realized, instead of simply measuring it in terms of material gains
(Chapra 1992). The religious values are very deeply incorporated in the Muslim societies,
which make it necessary to practice Islamic ideology there (Kavoossi 2000; Lawrence
1998). It is vital for the companies to comprehend the impact that religion makes on
Muslim societies before designing their marketing strategies (Cornwell et al. 2005; Fam,
Waller, and Erdogan 2004; Michell, and Al-Mossawi 1995). The majority of the
marketing and branding decisions directed at Muslim consumers are western-oriented
(Zakaria and Abdul-Talib 2010). Multinational companies operating in Muslim countries
should appreciate and understand the Islamic code of conduct. For example, majority of
Saudi Muslims believe that advertising is promoting western values, which puts marketing
communication in direct conflict with the Islamic culture and values (Keenan and Shoreh
2000), and such companies might lose a significant portion of Muslim consumers (Roger,
Ogbuehi, and Kochunny 1995).
3.2 Economic reasons
Lately, Islamic perspectives on business have been highly appreciated in the form
unprecedented growth of Islamic banking, which has expanded to more than 100 countries
around the world, holding a capital investment of US $700 billion, with an average annual
growth rate of 15% (Chong and Liu 2009). Islamic financial institutions are expected to
attract about 40 –50% of the total savings of Muslims worldwide in next 8 –10 years
(Alam 2006). The thriving success rate of Islamic banking and finance in not only Muslimdominant countries but also in the countries where the Muslim population is in the
minority (e.g., UK, Singapore) demonstrates the appreciation of Islamic perspectives in
business operations. Large western banking groups such as HSBC, ABN AMRO, Citi
bank, Lloyd TSB, RBS, and Standard Chartered bank have either opened Islamic banking
subsidiaries or added Islamic banking and finance products and services to their product
portfolios and have formed partnerships with Islamic institutions to promote Islamic
banking in European and Western countries (Khan and Bhatti 2008).
3.3 Legal reasons
There is also need to appreciate the Islamic perspective on marketing because the legal
framework of a country is shaped by its religious and cultural background (Boddewyn
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4
S. Yousaf
1982; Harker 1998; Rotzoll, Haefner, and Hall 1996). For example, Saudi-Arabian
government has levied advertisement code of conduct which requires companies to truly
observe the principles of Islamic faith (Al-Makaty et al. 1996). Some marketing activities
are bound by the restrictions set by the religious institutions (Boddewyn 1982). For
example, in Malaysian society advertisements that contradict to the Islamic teachings are
prohibited. In case of female models, a proper dress code should be followed in order for
them to appear on national television. Moreover, advertisements of female hygiene
products cannot be broadcasted before 10:00 pm (Waller and Fam 2000).
From the above discussion, a framework for appreciating the need for an Islamic
perspective can be deduced as shown in Figure 1. It may be inferred that there is a need to
recognize the Islamic perspective in the business operations, as Islamic doctrine influences
the majority of Muslims who constitute about one-fourth of the total world’s population
and many emerging economies. The promotion mix management in the perspective of
Islamic teachings will be now categorically discussed on the basis of the four major
sources of guidance for Muslims. First, the holy book of Quran which is considered the
words of Allah (Subhanahu Wa Ta’ala (SWT), an Islamic honorific used when writing the
name of God, meaning ‘glory to Him, the exalted’). Second, the sayings of the holy
Prophet Muhammad (Salalahu Alaihi Wasalam (SAW), an Islamic honorific only reserved
for the prophet of Islam, meaning ‘may Allah SWT send blessings and peace upon him’),
accumulated in the form of ‘Hadith’. Third, the Aghl that includes inferences reached
through justification, reason and logic. And fourth, the Ijtihad, which are the commonly
agreed understandings of Islamic teachings by Muslim scholars, e.g., Miskawayh and
Al-Ukhuwa (Al-Olayan and Karande 2000).
4.
Promotion in Islam
Promotion mix is a specific combination of communications tools such as advertising,
public relations, personal selling, sales promotion, and direct marketing (Armstrong and
Large Muslim population
Inclination towards sharia
compliance systems
Intimate relation between
commerce and Islam
Religious reasons
Deep integration of religion in
lives of Muslims
Growth in Islamic financial
institutions
Western financial institutions
opening Islamic subsidiaries and
introducing Islamic finance
products and services
Economic reasons
Pressure from religious groups and
institutions
Advertising code of conduct to
follow Islamic teachings
Legal reasons
Figure 1. A framework for appreciating the Islamic perspective in Marketing.
Need for Islamic
perspective in marketing
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Journal of Marketing Communications
5
Kotler 2009) which brings consumers from a state of relative unawareness of the product
offerings to a state of actively adopting the product/service (Cole 1996; Ross 2001). These
communication tools are considered indispensable in conveying information to the
consumers and helping them build predispositions about product offerings, which
ultimately determine their purchasing decisions. The multitude of promotional avenues
has instigated the need for the strategic integration of the promotional tools in order to
synergize the communication with the customers (Belch et al. 2008). More recently, an
emerging field of integrated marketing communications (IMCs) has become the focus
of academicians and practitioners that attempts to control and coordinate various
communications tools to yield unified customer-focused messages (Boone and Kurtz
2007). The value maximization principle of Islam that expostulate the focus on
accumulation of wealth by corporations is proximate to the consumer-centric approach of
IMCs. Most effectively contrived communication strategies embark on the consumer as a
focal point (Kitchen and Schultz 1999; Schultz and Schultz 2003) by ascertaining a
thorough understanding of consumers and being sensitive and responsive to their needs in
articulating the business strategies (Kliatchko 2008). This perspective is conceived as
‘outside-in approach’ in IMC taxonomy (Schultz and Kitchen 2000) which stipulates that
all communication activities strive to meet the needs of consumers and are thus evidently
driven by them. So marketers should actively consider what consumers want to see or hear,
and significant resources should be allocated to construct segmented databases of
consumers which should be intelligently incorporated into the communication planning
process to enhance precision and efficiency (Kitchen 2005). With the advent of
technology, avenues for the information provision have manifolded resulting in
information-rich competitive market places. This along with the demassification of
markets into smaller consumer segments has accentuated the practicability of consumercentric approach in aligning the entire organization in fulfilling the customer requirements
(Kitchen and Burgmann 2004; Schultz 2004).
Commerce and trade are highly acknowledged fields in Islam as they constitute
fundamental part of our lives. Teaching and trading are considered as esteemed
professions because they are accredited as professions of the prophets. In Islam, the
truthful and honest merchant is considered as someone working for the well-being of the
whole humanity, and status of such a person is considered equivalent to the prophets who
devoted their lives to the benefit of humanity (Jami At-Tirmidhi 14:4). The marketing
strategies aiming to fulfill the needs of customers and adding convenience in their lives are
regarded as endearing acts in Islam. Yusuf (2010) interpreted the Quran verse (73:20) as
‘Allah SWT praises the equipment used to promote the trade’, so Islam encourages the
promotional aspects of businesses provided that all facets of business are compliant with
the Islamic teachings (Abdullah and Ahmad 2010).
The spread of Islam in initial phases can itself make it a classic case study of the
marketing communication mix. The Prophet Muhammad SAW was known as a truthful
and honest person amongst the Arabs of that time who also used to submit their belongings
to him for safekeeping (Nomani 1981), so a much-needed credibility to spread a new idea/
product to an extremely uncongenial market was already attained. The Prophet
Muhammad SAW altered the promotions and communications strategies in spreading
the message of Islam in accordance with the changing scenarios of that time (Hafihz
2012a). The initial phase of Islam could be termed as ‘prototyping phase’ when the
message was secretively communicated to the close companions of Prophet Muhammad
SAW in order to build familiarity with the new idea, i.e., the message of Islam. Upon the
successful trial of the new idea, the message was publicly communicated to the general
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public. In this phase, Prophet Muhammad SAW confronted severe hostility from the
people, but he remained determined in this unfriendly market environment, where new
idea was steadily getting acceptance. In the third phase, Prophet Muhammad SAW
migrated outside of Mecca; this was the time when the message was communicated to a
wider audience. Soon, there was a growth stage, when the idea was dissolutely gaining
acceptance. The Prophet Muhammad SAW had a tendency to customize his answers
according to the state of the questioner and the context in which it was asked. In various
occasions, the same question was asked to the Prophet SAW, but he chose to respond at the
personal level by formulating his answer accordingly (Bukhari 8:137; 2:10; 2:11; 73:3).
Today sophisticated technologies such as database marketing and data mining can help
marketers reach the customer at a more personal level and design offerings that
specifically corresponds to the customer needs.
4.1
Islamic promotional ethics
Islam does not allow the practice of concealing the unfavorable product information from
customers. Such malpractices are termed as ‘betrayal’, ‘hypocrisy’, and ‘cheating’ as per
Islamic teachings and disliked by Allah SWT. The Prophet Muhammad SAW once came
across a heap of grain being sold at a market. When he put his fingers into it, they became
damp, upon inquiring the owner said that it was due to rain to which the Prophet SAW
replied ‘Why did you not put it on top of the heap so that the people could see it! Anyone
who cheats us is not one of us’. (Ryad us Saliheen: 1579). Another hadith that stresses the
importance of fairness in dealings and honesty in communications,
There are four characteristics, whoever has all of them is a true hypocrite, and whoever has
one of them has one of the qualities of a hypocrite until he gives it up: when he is trusted, he
betrays; when he speaks, he lies; when he makes a promise, he breaks it; and when he disputes,
he resorts to slander. (Bukhari 53:A394)
Islam emphasizes on the importance of promise keeping. The marketers should realize that
they should promise only what they are capable of delivering instead of exaggerating their
claims. Over promising might sell the product, but the mismatch of customer expectations
and actual delivered product might lead to lower customer satisfaction. Marketers should
refrain from over praising the attributes of their products and services, as Islam strongly
prohibits all kinds of mischief, deceits and lies. However, we need to make an important
distinction here about determining the extents of exaggeration. Simply using metaphors
for clarity of expression and ease of comprehension should not be considered as an
exaggeration. Sahih Muslim (6:83) narrates that Prophet Muhammad SAW told his
Companions:
A good friend is like a person who carries amber (which has a fragrant pleasant smell).
If nothing else, his pleasant smell will get on you. A bad friend, on the other hand, is like a
blacksmith. Even if the dust of his work does not touch you, its fumes do.
Symbolically explaining something by using analogies with the intent of better
understanding of the consumer is allowed in Islam.
Recently, an interesting development occurred, when the Coca-Cola Company
explicitly advertised how their beverages are damaging human health and are one of the
causes of serious health problems such as obesity, high blood pressure, etc. (BBC news,
15th January 2013). The questions arise whether simply communicating the adverse
effects of products but still continuing producing them is a socially responsible behavior.
If consumers, yet persist consuming the soft drinks, does that make Coca-Cola Company
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7
unaccountable for its actions? Informed decision-making was facilitated to the consumers
by divulging the negative aspects of soft drinks’ consumption. Islam is based upon
the principles of value maximization, so if a product or a service is not beneficial for the
greater good of society, then it should not be produced. Islam strongly discourages the
application of manipulative approaches to exploit customers to gain more profit (Koku
2011), creating a deceitful impression to the customer that he or she is getting a bargain
when actually it is not (Shaw 1996), and propagating false demand supply position in the
market to sell products/services other than the optimal price level is disallowed in Islam
(Saeed, Ahmed, and Mukhtar 2001). The Prophet Muhammad SAW stated that ‘Do not
resort to najsh; and let not a man carry on a transaction against his brother’s transaction’
(Bukhari 34:58.). Najsh here symbolizes a third party, i.e., commission agents, who tend to
mislead guileless farmers into paying a higher price for an otherwise normally priced
commodity. In the times of Prophet Muhammad SAW, there used to be practice of leaving
camels and goats unmilked, which deceived the buyers of a milch animal and induced
them to pay higher prices. Such a transaction may be repudiated on discretion of buyer,
as stated in Hadith,
Do not leave the camels and the goats unmilked, and whoever buys them after (they have been
so left); he has the option of doing one of two things when he milks them; if he is pleased,
he may keep them, and if he is unpleased, he may give them back (to the owner) with a sa
(one measure for certain weight) of dates. (Bukhari 34:64)
Modern marketing strategies that focus on presenting an exaggerated version of goods by
attractive packaging and tempting styling with the aim of luring customer attention and
enticing them to make purchases fall into the same category. Islam gives customers
complete rights to take decisions out of their free will.
There are numerous occasions in The Holy Quran where clear commandments are
given against lying and deceit to fellow human beings (Al-Quran 24:6 – 8; 24:13; 78:35;
9:43; 3:61; 6:28; 7:66; 9:107; 29:12; 39:3; 54:26). Another Hadith states
Allah SWT said: There are three whom I will oppose on the Day of Resurrection: a man who
gave his word and then betrayed it; a man who sold a free man into slavery and kept the
money; and a man who hired someone, benefited from his labor, and then did not pay his
wages. (Bukhari 89:A319)
Any profits earned or benefits reaped from mischief are abhorred by Islam and are strongly
discouraged. Islam focuses on the cultivation of greater good for the society as a whole
(Al-Quran 2:188; 5:9; 7:56; 28:77; 28:83; 13:25; 30:41; 4:29).
Giving short measures and weights during a transaction is called ‘Tatfif’ and it is prohibited
in Islam (Al-Quran 83:1–5) as it devoid the buyer/seller of getting what he/she really deserves.
A verse of The Holy Quran states such exploiting practices of the sellers as follows:
When they measure against others take a full measure; but when they measure to them or
weigh to them, diminish! (Al-Quran 83: 2 –3)
The tatfif is prohibited because it enables sellers to exploit buyers by making undue
profits (Saeed, Ahmed, and Mukhtar 2001). Prophet Shuaib (Alayhi Sallam, an Islamic
honorific mentioned after the name of one of the prophets, meaning ‘may peace be upon
him’) tells his people (as stated in the Quran), ‘Give just measure, and cause no loss
(to others by fraud). And weigh with scales true and upright . . . ’ (Al-Quran 26: 181 –184).
The concept of ‘Tatfif’ in Islam is broad, and its application is not only limited to the
commercial transactions. It covers all forms of human rights violations, when people are
unable to get what they rightfully deserve (Shafi, Shamim, and Taqi’Usmãni 1998). This
concept can also be applied to the modern marketing communication mix. In promotions,
8
S. Yousaf
it can be interpreted as making false promises of delivering value to the customer but
actually not delivering it. Such practices are directly in confrontation with the Islamic
concept of justice and fairness in dealings. The Islamic economic system is based upon the
principles of value maximization, and not on the profit maximization. Islam emphasizes on
the principles of justice. Everyone should get what he/she deserves, getting more than that
or lesser than that is considered as injustice in Islam.
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4.2
Coercive marketing
Marketers should not resort to coercive strategies in order to sell their products/services.
Coercion is to compel customers to take decisions in favor of marketers without their own
consent (Tyser, Demetriades, and Efendi 1967). According to Islamic principles, sexual
appeal, emotional appeal, fear appeal, subliminal advertising and deceitful claims all have
elements of coercion (Saeed, Ahmed, and Mukhtar 2001). Coercion is termed as ‘Ikrah’ in
the Holy book of Muslims (Al-Quran 23:7; 24:33) and it is strongly discouraged in Islam
because it clouts the ability of customers to rationally evaluate their choices, which is a
prerequisite of Islamic law (Ahmad 1995). The ‘intent’ plays a very important part in
categorizing some decisions of marketers as Islamic or otherwise. There are numerous
instances when Prophet Muhammad SAW communicated with people in a humorous
manner. It is narrated that a man asked Prophet Muhammad SAW for a riding animal, to
which The Prophet SAW replied in a cheerful manner, ‘Would it be alright if I put you on
the calf of a female camel?’ The man said: ‘O Messenger of Allah SWT, what good will
that to me?’ and received the following reply: ‘Isn’t every camel the calf of a female
camel?’ (Sunan Abu Dawud 9). If the intention is to educate the customer about some
pressing phenomenon, then use of humor or fear to grasp the attention of a viewer
instantaneously should not be against the prerequisite of Islamic laws. For example, if
there is a breakout of epidemic disease within a community, then fear appeals can be
employed to grasp immediate customer’s attention regarding the preventive and
precautionary measures.
Exploiting women and stereotyping their role in promotional campaigns as an ‘object’
to attract customers is not acceptable in Islam.
And tell the believing women to lower their gazes and guard their privates’ parts and not
expose their adornment except that which [necessarily] appears . . . (Al-Quran 24:31)
In Saudi Arabia, women are only shown in ads if their presence is directly relevant to
the product or service being advertised, e.g., child care products or household items, and
they are appropriately attired in accordance with Islamic code, i.e., long dresses and scarf
(Al-Makaty et al. 1996). Islam does not prohibit advertising. And even different aspects of
Islamic faith are promoted through electronic and print media (i.e., call to prayer). The
opposition by religious authorities is not toward the promotion itself, but toward western
brand promotional tactics that propagate western culture and values, which are not
acceptable in Islam (Al-Makaty, Boyd, and Van Tubergen 1994).
Sometimes, marketers try to create ‘deliberate confusion’ in the minds of consumers
by providing ambiguous, misleading or inadequate information through marketing
communications (Mitchell and Papavassiliou 1999). Especially telecommunication
companies provide so much information that it becomes difficult for the consumer to grab
all the information and rationally evaluate it. Particularly, bundling different offers such as
x free minutes, y free SMS, till z date, the x call rate for the first y seconds and then the x*
call rate for the later y* seconds, free calls from y hours to y* hours, and so on. It becomes
very complicated for the customer to evaluate one package with another package, because
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9
if one company provides extra minutes, then another company offers extra SMS, and then
there will be still another company that extends proposition to certain free hours daily.
This ‘deliberate confusion’ does not help customers make rational choices as it becomes
elusive for consumers to compare tariffs across different networks (Turnbull, Leek, and
Ying 2000). Islam discourages all such actions that do not allow consumers to make wellfounded and sound choices.
Islam also regards the marketing efforts aimed at enticing customers for impulse
buying as coercive marketing strategies and hence unacceptable. Consumer impulse
buying behavior is less likely to be characterized by careful thoughts and deliberate
evaluations (Rook 1987). An instantaneous urge for gratification prevails over customers
as they face psychological disequilibrium, which makes them lesser concerned with the
consequences of their purchase decisions (Rook and Hock 1983). The influence of
cognitive abilities becomes marginal in impulse buying scenarios as an affective state over
powers. Store design, product displays, product packaging design, and sales promotion
techniques are often used by the retailers to increase the impulse buying behavior of
consumers (Hoyer and MacInnis 2001). The underlying mechanism at work during
impulse buying is what Islamic scholars call ‘Nafse Ammara’, a state when a person is too
overwhelmed towards fulfillment of his or her desires (Nasr 1996). Islam encourages
thoughtful buying decisions, and phenomena of subliminal advertising and impulse
buying are a violation of the Islamic postulate of rationality (Ansari 1991).
4.3
Islamic symbols and cues
Islamic symbols and cues have been used by marketers in their promotional campaigns. For
example, the use of the word ‘Bismillah’ a phrase Muslims use before starting any work,
which literally means ‘I begin with the name of God (Allah SWT)’ (Rice and Al-Mossawi
2002), use of relevant Quranic verses such as ‘We made everything from water’ by
manufacturer of hand water pumps (Luqmani, Yavas, and Quraeshi 1989), and use of ‘Hijab’
for spokesperson and models in advertisements (Naseri and Tamam 2012). However, the
contradictory phenomenon occurs when Islam itself is being used as a part of ‘emotional
appeal’ by companies to strike the right chords in the minds and hearts of the customers in
order to sell the products and services. The research reveals that utilization of Islamic symbols
and cues in advertising elicits positive feelings from Muslim customers (Naseri and Tamam
2012). Due to sacredness associated with religious symbols and cues, they have a strong
presence in daily life (Zwick and Chelariu 2006). The intent itself matters a lot here: if a
company is selling its goods by exploiting the religious emotions of people without paying
consideration to the adherence of Islamic laws in its operations, then it is committing against
the fundamental ideology of Islam. On the other hand, if the company is abiding by all the
Islamic rules and regulations in its operations and manifesting the same in its promotional
campaigns by using Islamic symbols and cues, then it becomes acceptable for such company.
4.4
The implications of Islamic concepts of Ibadah and Haram & Halal
As mentioned previously, that in Islam, the concept of Ibadah extends to all aspects of life.
Similarly, the production process is also considered as an Ibadah to Allah SWT (Al-Faruki
1992). Therefore, manufacturers should not base their decision-making on the profit
maximization approach; rather they should work for the welfare of whole society and
people living in it (Miller and Deiss 1996). The promotion mix, if designed in accordance
with Islamic principles, is akin to doing Ibadah. This ideology changes the whole
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motivation of conducting business. The urge to earn profits is compromised in the wake of
the greater implications of doing ‘Ibadah’. The concept of green marketing prevalent in
market literature these days is a pivotal part of the Islamic framework of value
maximization. Islam has introduced the concepts of Halal and Haram consumption to the
Muslims. It is not permissible for Muslims to consume/use the Haram products, but they
are permitted to consume/use the Halal products. To name a few, carrion, pork (Al-Quran
5:4), alcohol (Al-Quran 2:219), prostitution and gambling (Al-Quran 5:91), interest (Riba)
(Al-Quran 2:275), and meat of animals not slaughtered in an Islamic way (Al-Quran 5:3;
Bukhari 67:A411) are specifically categorized as Haram products. Just like the concept of
Ibadah, the concepts of Halal and Haram are not only limited to being products, but they
are rich in their significance and implications, which extend to all the spheres of life. The
Halal is a spiritual status only attained by internalizing the way of life fostered by Islam.
If one is using the money earned through fraud to buy Halal meat, it does not mean that he/
she is consuming Halal food. Having said that, non-Muslims residing in the Muslim state
are allowed to consume goods and services prohibited by Islam and adopt a different
lifestyle (Al-Quran 109:6). Islamic principles emphasize the production quality (Al-Quran
2:172, 177). The production processes should remain free from any wrongdoing and
element of adulteration from the beginning to the end (Al-Faruki 1992). Branding as
‘Halal’ help consumers avoid any element of doubt in their purchase, the absence of
which, according to Wilson and Liu (2010) may serve as a potential deal breaker. As
mentioned before, Islamic symbols and cues should only be employed in marketing
communications, if firms adhere to the Islamic principles and teachings. A firm changing
its production processes and marketing practices, in order to meet the ‘Halal’ food
conditions levied by Islam, earns a right to integrate religion in their marketing efforts
(Alserhan 2010).
4.5
Customer service
Islam emphasizes Muslims on showing regard to one another by being polite in speech and
behavior. ‘Allah SWT will show compassion to those who show kindness while buying,
selling and recovering debts’ (Riyad us saliheen 1368), and in another instance it was told
by Prophet Muhammad SAW ‘Allah SWT forgives a smiling and polite person when
buying and selling’ (Bukhari). Another Hadith stresses the importance of cordial
relationships. ‘Don’t consider anything insignificant out of good things, even if it is that
you meet your brother with a cheerful countenance’ (Sahih Muslim 32:6359). In a
strenuous working environment, it would be difficult for customer service employees to
maintain their courtesy throughout the exhausting routines. This is where Islam stimulates
positive energy by focusing on courtesy and good behavior not because it is ‘productive
for business’ or it ‘retains’ the customers, but because it is actually a good deed. A simple
act encouraged by Prophet Muhammad SAW is known as ‘Sunnah’ and it is recognized as
a highly rewarding act if it is performed by Muslims (Hafihz 2012b). So, seemingly
insignificant deeds such as smiling may have purposeful implications for Muslims just
because they were preached by Prophet Muhammad SAW and that also changes the whole
source of motivation. Islam emphasizes on protecting everyone’s rights and being
courteous towards other members of the society. According to Prophet Muhammad SAW,
‘Every Muslim has five rights over another Muslim (i.e., He has to perform five duties for
another Muslim): to return the greetings, to visit the sick, to accompany funeral
processions, to accept an invitation, to respond to the sneezer’ (Riyad-us-Saliheen
144:895). Marketing research also indicates that Muslims with a higher degree of
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religiosity are more likely to be influenced by their social connections in making their
purchases (Yousaf and Malik 2013).
Islam does not only underline the importance of good behavior of the seller but also
equally on the gentle behavior of buyers, something which modern marketing concept
does not stress upon much. Customer care is a crucial part of Islamic marketing doctrine,
but unlike modern marketing concepts which solely concentrate on the customer being a
‘king’, Islam strives to find a balance between all segments of the society. A company
merely focusing on customer forgets its responsibilities towards other segments of the
society, i.e., common public, which are not its customers. Islam on the other hand
emphasizes value maximization, in pursuit of greater good and welfare of the whole
society rather than a certain segment of the society.
4.6 Celebrity endorsements and opinion leadership in Islam
The Prophet Muhammad SAW acknowledged the need of ‘influencer’ in the preliminary
phase of Islam to drive the cause forward, when he made the supplication to incline Umer
bin Al Khattab (Radi Allahu ’anha (RA), meaning may God be pleased with him, an
Islamic honorific used for the companions of Prophet Muhammad SAW) to his side who
was considered as a powerful orator, had overwhelmingly charismatic personality,
possessed skills of battle, and was inimically hostile toward Islam and Muslims during
early phase of Islam. The early phase of Islam can be considered as a ‘new product
adoption’ stage in the present-day scenario. The Prophet Muhammad SAW greatly desired
Umer bin Al Khattab RA to be his companion who went on to lead Muslims as a second
caliph. His miraculous conversion to Islam gave Muslims strength, and they openly started
offering prayers in Mosque Al Haram, modern-day Kaaba (Nadvi 2005). In the
contemporary marketing environment, opinion leaders and celebrity endorsers are
the ‘influencers’ employed by the marketers. Marketing literature provides evidence of the
crucial role opinion leaders’ play in the new-product adoption process (e.g., Flynn,
Goldsmith, and Eastman 1996; Girardi, Soutar, and Ward 2005). Opinion leaders shape
opinions and trends across entire communities (Keller and Berry 2003) and serve as a role
model considered worthy of imitation by others, forming a contagion effect when ideas
and behavioral dispositions initiated by an opinion leader disseminate throughout the
community (Weimann 1994). In addition to the notion of opinion leadership, recent
estimation is that approximately one-fourth of the commercials in America were endorsed
by celebrities (Shimp 2000). It is a well-known proposition in marketing research that
celebrity endorsement leads to favorable product evaluations (e.g., Dean and Biswas 2001;
Till, Stanley, and Priluck 2008), but it is also recognized that effectiveness of celebrity
endorsement is dependent upon other factors as well such as celebrity credibility, product
and specific societal conditions (Silvera and Austad 2004). Islam allows the use of
‘influencers’ only when other facets of Islamic teachings are strictly met by the companies
and purpose is not to entice the customer into purchasing process but to help the customer
in making a choice. In 2009, a controversy erupted in Pakistan against Lays regarding the
use of some ingredients that were supposedly derived from pig’s fat. Lays Pakistan
launched a comprehensive promotional campaign ‘100% Halal’ to evade the negative
effects of this propaganda (brandsynario.com). A respected Islamic scholar ‘Junaid
Jamshed’ was incorporated into this campaign in order to convince the consumers by
testifying Lays as ‘100% Halal’, which was successfully accomplished and it helped
customers in making their choices. (Of course, we are assuming here that the production
process of Lays Pakistan was in accordance with the Islamic principles.)
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S. Yousaf
4.7 Direct marketing, some insights from Islam
Direct marketing is considered as a highly attractive tool in order to build sustainable
relationships with the customers (Tapp 2000, 4– 10). The Prophet Muhammad SAW
remained succinct and pertinent in his communication and was never observed to be
interrupting in anybody’s speech. The Prophet Muhammad SAW was an extremely
patient, tolerant and forgiving person (Tawheedi 1989). Today, these characteristics are
considered to be of pertinent value in effectively communicating with people. The Prophet
Muhammad SAW also indulged in direct mailing to communicate to the other kings of his
time. The communications were directed toward the goal of introducing Islam to them and
inviting them to Islam. Each letter had three main components. First, the recipients were
acquainted with the new product/idea, i.e., Islam. Second, an invitation was given to call
them to Islam. And finally, the disadvantages were listed (mostly spiritual in nature) in
case of not preferring the proposed idea. Nowadays, companies stress the monetary losses,
health issues and enduring the inconvenience in case of not accepting company’s
offerings. The content of each letter was adjusted to coincide with the characteristics of
each recipient without compromising on the basic subject. This format of indulging in one
to one communication with the kings at that time was important as they used to be, what in
contemporary marketing could be called, opinion leaders and people looked upon them to
seek information and leadership in the daily matters of life.
Islam also emphasizes that the seller should address all the objections from the
customer and reduce dissonance and uncertainty associated with the purchase in order to
provide him/her ease of mind. This phase is called the ‘objection handling’ stage in
personal selling literature (e.g., Jobber and Lancaster 2006) where underlying differences
that are an integral part of a buyer –seller relationship are more likely to become evident
(Malhotra 1999) which a salesperson can handle effectively by finding an ‘integrative
solution’ (Homburg, Muller, and Klarmann 2011, 3) through an active exchange of
information and identifying benefits that are desirable for both buyer and seller (Weitz and
Bradford 1999). In the closing stages of sales, the salesperson should refrain from
engaging in persuasive tactics as they have devious influence on consumers which
diminishes the credibility in the buyer – seller relationship (Hawes, Strong, and Winick
1996), and relevant information should be used to close the sale (Saxe and Weitz 1982).
Similar concerns were addressed in Islam, and Prophet Muhammad SAW stated that
The buyer and the seller have the option (of cancelling the contract) as long as they have not
separated, then if they both speak the truth and make manifest, their transaction shall be
blessed, and if they conceal and tell lies, the blessing of their transaction shall be obliterated.
(Bukhari 34:19)
Islam focuses on using information as a tool in business dealings. Customers are entitled to
their own opinions, and salespersons should not persuade them or recourse to sentimental
appeals in closing the sale. Taking oaths, swearing and making promises are other
persuasive strategies, which are discouraged in Islam. If all the benefits rendered by products
or services do not engage customers in making a purchase, then resorting to promises about
its functionality and good quality is strictly abhorred in Islam as stated: ‘The taking of oaths
makes the commodities sell, but it obliterates the blessing (therein)’ (Bukhari 34:26). If the
consumer does not make a purchase, the seller is still expected to exhibit courtesy and
politeness, as mentioned in Al- Quran: ‘And if you turn away from them to obtain the grace
of your Lord, whom you would then, speak unto them a soft kind word’ (Al-Quran 17:28).
Marketing literature also acknowledges the fact that the salesperson possessing the attributes
of empathy and compassion is most likely to be successful and built quality relationships
Journal of Marketing Communications
13
with customers (Bagozzi 2006; Rasmusson 2000; Wong and Sohal 2002; Stock and Hoyer
2005). Not only the seller, but a customer is also expected to be considerate and humane, if
they are not interested in buying the salesperson’s offerings as Islam preaches the feelings of
compassion and empathy toward fellow human beings (Al-Quran 3:159). The Prophet
Muhammad SAW used various techniques to effectively demonstrate message, for example,
use of gestures and coordinated movements of hands to better explain things. In one
instance, the Prophet SAW demonstrated the concept of closeness by lifting index figure and
showing its approximation to the middle finger. Marketing literature, in a similar vein,
acknowledged the effectiveness of nonverbal communication in direct communications
(e.g., Mayer and Greenberg 2006).
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5.
Conclusions
The development of marketing theories under Islamic observation may seem like a
farfetched idea to many scholars, but review of relevant literature reveals that Islam offers
a distinctive set of principles that can conceptualize the marketing field in its own inherent
manner. Islamic teachings assert the importance of social welfare and promote the wellbeing of whole society instead of guarding the interests of the few. It will be fair to infer
that Islamic marketing encapsulates the disciplines of business ethics and corporate social
responsibility. Islam offers a parallel paradigm of conducting business, which does not only
suit Muslim markets but also non-Muslim markets, as the principles of value maximization
and justice are the fundamentals of building a welfare society. Islam extends its counseling
to all segments of the society, for example, in an attempt to explicate consumption ethics,
Allah SWT advises, ‘do not deceive yourself by taking this world as play, pass time, show
off, boasting and piling up riches in rivalry with each other’ (Al-Quran 57:20). Islam
advises against the ostentatious and splashy consumption as it makes people covetous and
engulfs them with insatiable desires for material possessions. In a similar vein, the profitoriented firms indulged in serious cut throat competition to amass more wealth are warned
as ‘The mutual rivalry for piling up (the good things in this world) diverts you (from the
more serious things) until you reach the graves’ (Al-Quran 102:1 –2). The nexus of
motivation in Islam is more spiritual in nature, which makes it different from other ethical
stipulations as it focuses on bringing the change within, the true form of conduct that has
more foresightedness and can be used as a tool to promote fair marketing practices.
The study has its limitations, as it does not cover all aspects of marketing. This study
relies heavily on the Holy Scriptures that does not allow statistical inferences, though the
very nature of this study does not demand so. For future studies, it would be valuable to see
the extent to which national and multinational companies follow these Islamic marketing
principles and how they influence the way consumers perceived the image of these
companies, which can ultimately impact on their different behavioral traits, for example,
repurchase intentions, consumption values, and patronage behavior. In order to gain
acceptance from the scientific community, Islamic marketing knowledge should be enriched
and its strategic importance should be highlighted by the scholars working in this field.
Notes on contributor
Salman Yousaf is a researcher and a PhD candidate at the School of Business Administration,
Dongbei University of Finance and Economics, Dalian. His research mostly focuses on the cosubjectivity of the Marketing discipline, particularly the application of social concepts in the nation’s
branding and the contemporariness of religious beliefs and their practicability and relevance in the
development of theoretical models of marketing.
14
S. Yousaf
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